Commodification

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Commodification is the process of transforming inalienable, free, or gifted things (objects, services, ideas, nature, personal information, people or animals) into commodities, or objects for sale. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] It has a connotation of losing an inherent quality or social relationship when something is integrated by a capitalist marketplace. [5] Concepts that have been argued as being commodified include broad items such as the body, [6] intimacy, [7] public goods, [8] animals [9] and holidays. [10]

Contents

History

Terminology

The earliest use of the word "commodification" dates from 1975. [4]  Use of the concept of commodification became common with the rise of critical discourse analysis in semiotics. [11] The terms commodification and commoditization are sometimes used synonymously, [12]  to describe the process of making commodities out of goods, services, and ideas. [13] [14]

However, other authors distinguish them, with commodification used in social contexts to mean that a non-commercial good has become commercial, typically with connotations of "corrupted by commerce", while commoditization is used in business contexts to mean when the market for an existing product has become a commodity market, where products are interchangeable and there is heavy price competition. In a quip: "Microprocessors are commoditized. Love is commodified." [15]

In Marxist Theory

Karl Marx considered commodity a cell-form of capitalism. Marx color.jpg
Karl Marx considered commodity a cell-form of capitalism.

The Marxist understanding of commodity is distinct from its meaning in business. Commodity played a key role throughout Karl Marx's work; he considered it a cell-form of capitalism and a key starting point for an analysis of this politico-economic system. [16] Marx extensively criticized the social impact of commodification under the name commodity fetishism and alienation. [17]

Prior to being turned into a commodity, an object has a "specific individual use value". [18] After becoming a commodity, that same object has a different value: the amount for which it can be exchanged for another commodity. [18] According to Marx, this new value of the commodity is derived from the time taken to produce the good, and other considerations are obsolete, including morality, environmental impact, and aesthetic appeal. [18]

Marx claimed that everything would eventually be commodified: "the things which until then had been communicated, but never exchanged, given, but never sold, acquired, but never bought – virtue, love, conscience – all at last enter into commerce." [19]

Mass Communication Studies

Media, as a culture industry, is apparent from the rise of mass communications to monetize a populace for profit. Research in critical cultural studies of media effects identify commodification of culture as a recent large contributing force for disruption of a society by mass media. An example is the display of American culture to the population within its borders and abroad. The commodity being sold is America, but mediated to show only the most exciting, dramatic, attention-getting, emotion-rousing aspects. Media corporations are expert at analyzing and selecting appealing elements of the culture, then repackaging and enhancing those elements for a wide audience. The quest for large viewership creates an image that does not show boring, unpleasant, or minority aspects of America. The distribution of the alternate form of the culture, for profit, causes misconceptions and stereotyping along with disruption of the original folk culture. Within the United States, the commodification of culture is the mediated view of American society accepted as the culture and even advanced by the culture depicted; the example given is hip-hop and rap music artists stars "selling out". The United States, with media corporations less prone to governmental interference, is successful at spreading American culture worldwide. [20]

Critical cultural research reveal consequences for the lifting of bits of culture, remolding for a mass audience, then selling the alternate view. A few of repercussions of commodification of culture: Only selected, majority cultural practices are shown leaving out other important minority cultures which are overlooked and/or ignored. As in Hollywood movies, only selected most exciting, dramatic, emotional aspects are presented while removing unpleasant, controversial or the boring. The success of marketing a culture entails distributing as much content as possible to the largest audience, causing disruption of everyday life. Elite media industries are ignorant or deny effects of mass marketing, by avoidance or by explaining that media has limited effects. There are many types of disruptions, some subtle, many obvious, including, propagation of misconceptions, loss of sense of place, a major focus on entertainment, loss of childhood, cultivation, and a disruptions of social conventions. [20]

Commodification of life

Animal commodification

Commodification of animals is one of the earliest forms of commodification, which can be traced back to the time when domestication of animals began. [9] It includes animal slavery in all forms, [21] : xvi–xvii  including use of animals for food, medicine, fashion and cosmetics, medical research, labor and transport, entertainment, wildlife trade, companionship, and so forth. [22] [23] Scholars say that the commodification of nonhuman animals in food systems is directly linked to capitalist systems that prioritize "monopolistically inclined financial interests" over the well-being of humans, nonhumans, and the environment. [24] Over 200 billion land and aquatic animals are killed every year to provide humans with animal products for consumption, which many scholars and activists have described as an "animal holocaust". [25] [26] : 29–32, 97  [27] The extensive use of land and other resources for the production of meat instead of grain for human consumption is a leading cause of malnutrition, hunger, and famine around the world. [9] : 204 

Human commodification

Human flesh at auction by Van Ingen Snyder. Suppressed - Human flesh at auction.jpg
Human flesh at auction by Van Ingen Snyder.

Commodification of humans have been discussed in various context, from slavery [28] to surrogacy. [29] [30] Auctions of cricket players by Indian Premier League, Big Bash League and others is also discussed to be a case of human commodification. [31] [32] Virginity auctions are a further example of self-commodification. [33] Human commodity is a term used in case of human organ trade, paid surrogacy (also known as commodification of the womb), and human trafficking. [1] [2] [34] According to Gøsta Esping-Andersen, people are commodified or 'turned into objects' when selling their labour on the market to an employer. [35]

Self-commodification

Personal information through Social Networking Sites (SNS's), such as music purchases, how we identify, and user profiles are aggregated and sold to corporations and businesses for micro targeting, advertising and marketing. [36]

Social media influencers are also a recent examples of self-commodification. A travel blogger is an instance of a mediated micro-celebrity, the social-media influencer, targeting a niche audience interested in visiting exotic locale. Social Media networks expand the reach of this focused audience to make influencing a profitable profession. They commodify themselves by offering online journals, advice, thoughts, experiences along with photographs and videos, then make money by, selling books, self-branding, blog subscriptions, and advertorials. Trust and an increased audience are built by expressing a conversational style, a seemingly real experience by a real person, allowing users connect to the blogger as a friendly voice offering advice on travel choices. [37]

Commodification of culture

A critique of elites in modern societies using media to select aspects of a local culture, repackage and redistribute the alternate view of that culture for profit. Current research include books by: S. Jhally, [38] H.M. Enzensberger, [39] S. Gunster [40] and J. Tunstall. [41] Controversy and disruption occurs when this alternate view is seen as untruthful to the culture that is depicted. Disruptions include misconceptions, sameness, and a focus on entertainment. [20]

Commodification of holidays

Many holidays such as Christmas, Halloween or Valentine's Day have been argued as having become commodified. [42] [43] [44] The commodification of a holiday refers to making celebrations necessarily commercial and based on material goods, like gift giving, elaborate decorations, trick or treating, and card giving. Modern celebrations of many holidays are now more related to the commercial practices and profitable tactics than they are to the holidays' origins. [45] For some holidays, like Halloween, there are arguments that the commodification of the original holiday turned it into the celebrations that people now love. [45] The commodification of other holidays, like Christmas, sparks arguments about undoing the commercialization and getting back to the intended spirit of the holiday. [10]

Commodification of Indigenous cultures

bell hooks, educator and social critic. Bell hooks, October 2014.jpg
bell hooks, educator and social critic.

American author and feminist bell hooks described the cultural commodification of race and difference as the dominant culture "eating the other". To hooks, cultural expressions of Otherness, even revolutionary ones, are sold to the dominant culture for their enjoyment. And any messages of social change are not marketed for their messages but used as a mechanism for the dominant ones to acquire a piece of the "primitive". [46] Any interests in past historical culture almost always have a modern twist. According to Mariana Torgovnick:

What is clear now is that the West's fascination with the primitive has to do with its own crises in identity, with its own need to clearly demarcate subject and object even while flirting with other ways of experiencing the universe. [47]

hooks states that marginalized groups are seduced by this concept because of "the promise of recognition and reconciliation".

When the dominant culture demands that the Other be offered as sign that progressive political change is taking place, that the American Dream can indeed be inclusive of difference, it invites a resurgence of essentialist cultural nationalism.

Commodification of indigenous cultures refers to "areas in the life of a community which prior to its penetration by tourism have not been within the domain of economic relations regulated by criteria of market exchange" (Cohen 1988, 372). An example of this type of cultural commodification can be described through viewing the perspective of Hawaiian cultural change since the 1950s. The Hawaiian Luau was once a traditional performance reserved for community members and local people, but through the rise of tourism, this tradition has lost part of its cultural meaning and is now mostly a "for profit" performance. [48]

Commodification of love

Examples of profiting from love are the myriad The Bachelor television shows, and the increase in luxury hotels catering to singles during Valentine's weekends. [49]

Commodification of media, Internet and online communities

Digital commodification occurs when, a business or corporation uses information from an online community without their knowledge, for profit. The commodification of information allows a higher authority to make money rather than a collaborative system of free thoughts. [50] [51] [52] Corporations such as Google, Apple, Facebook, Netflix, and Amazon accelerate and concentrate the commodification of online communities. [18] Digital tracking, like cookies, have further commodified the use of the internet, giving each click, view, or stream, monetary value, even if it is an interaction with free content.

Commodification of public goods

Public goods are goods for which users cannot be barred from accessing or using them, for failing to pay for them. However, such goods can also be commodified by value addition in the form of products or services or both. [8] Public goods like air [53] [54] and water [55] [56] can be subjected to commodification.

Commodification of subcultures

Various subcultures have been argued to as having become commodified, for example the goth subculture, [57] [58] the biker subculture, [59] [60] the tattoo subculture, [61] the witchcraft subculture, [62] and others. [63]

Commodification of tourism

Tourism has been analyzed in the context of commodification as a process of transforming local cultures and heritage into marketable goods. [64] [65] [66] [67] The commodification of tourism removes local culture from the foreground, replacing it with profitability from non-residents. This may be in the form of entertainment, souvenirs, food markets, or others. Tourism leads, in part, to the commodification of indigenous cultures as people return from visits with partial ideas and representations of the culture. [65]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Maloney, Lauren (19 November 2015). "The Commodification of Human Beings". nulawreview.org. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  2. 1 2 Wilsterman, James M. (2008). "The Human Commodity". thecrimson. thecrimson.com. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  3. ↑ For animals, "United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database", UN ComTrade; Josephine Donovan, "Aestheticizing Animal Cruelty," College Literature, 38(4), Fall 2011 (pp. 202–217), p. 203. JSTOR   41302895
    For slaves as commodities, Appadurai 1986, pp. 84–85; David Hawkes, Shakespeare and Economic Theory, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015, p. 130.
    For body commodification, Lesley A. Sharp, "The Commodification of the Body and Its Parts," Annual Review of Anthropology, 29, 2000 (pp. 287–328) p. 295ff. JSTOR   223423
  4. 1 2 commodification, n. Second edition, 1989; online version November 2010. <http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/37198>; accessed 6 January 2011.
  5. 1 2 Hearn, Alison (14 March 2017), "13. Commodification", Keywords for Media Studies, New York University Press, pp. 43–46, doi:10.18574/nyu/9781479817474.003.0016, ISBN   978-1-4798-1747-4 , retrieved 29 January 2024
  6. ↑ Sharp, Lesley A. (21 October 2000). "The Commodification of the Body and its Parts". Annual Review of Anthropology. 29 (1): 287–328. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.29.1.287. ISSN   0084-6570. PMID   15977341.
  7. ↑ Constable, Nicole (October 2009). "The Commodification of Intimacy: Marriage, Sex, and Reproductive Labor". Annual Review of Anthropology. 38 (1): 49–64. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085133. ISSN   0084-6570.
  8. 1 2 "Commodification | Neoliberalism". neolib.uga.edu. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  9. 1 2 3 Nibert, David (2011). "Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex". In Steven Best; Richard Kahn; Anthony J. Nocella II; Peter McLaren (eds.). The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 197–209. ISBN   978-0-7391-3698-0.
  10. 1 2 "We Can Reclaim Christmas from Capitalism". In These Times. 20 December 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  11. ↑ "Critical Discourse Analysis and Stylistics" (PDF). Retrieved 22 September 2011.
  12. ↑ Robert Hartwell Fiske's Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with commentary on lexicographers and linguists, Robert Hartwell Fiske, p. 99
  13. ↑ Appadurai 1986, also cited in Martha M. Ertman, Joan C. Williams, Rethinking commodification, 2005, in Afterword by Carol Rose, pp. 402–403. This cites various uses of commodification to mean "become a commodity market", and considers the use of commodification (Peggy Radin, 1987) and commoditization (Appadurai 1986) as equivalent.
  14. ↑ Greenwood, D.J. (1977). V. L. Smith (ed.). "Culture by the Pound: An Anthropological Perspective on Tourism as Cultural Commoditization". Hosts and Guests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 129–139.
  15. ↑ Surowiecki, James (30 January 1998). "The Commoditization Conundrum". Slate. Retrieved 16 August 2015. What corporations fear is the phenomenon now known, rather inelegantly, as "commoditization." What the term means is simply the conversion of the market for a given product into a commodity market, which is characterized by declining prices and profit margins, increasing competition, and lowered barriers to entry. ("Commoditization" is therefore different from "commodification," the word cultural critics use to decry the corruption of higher goods by commercial values. Microprocessors are commoditized. Love is commodified.)
  16. ↑ Prodnik, Jernej (2012). "A Note on the Ongoing Processes of Commodification: From the Audience Commodity to the Social Factory". pp. 274–301. Retrieved 30 March 2013– via Scribd.
  17. ↑ Marx, Karl (1867). "Chapter 1, Section 3: The Form of Value or Exchange-Value, Part 4 The Fetishism of Commodities and the Secret thereof". Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. Progress Press, Moscow – via Marxists Internet Archive.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Hearn, A. (2017). Commodification. In L. Ouellette, & J. Gray (Eds.), Keywords for media studies. New York University Press. Credo Reference: https://uri.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/nyupresskms/commodification/0?institutionId=4949
  19. ↑ Leopold, David (29 April 2015). "Karl Marx". In Duncan Pritchard (ed.). Karl Marx. Philosophy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0265. ISBN   978-0-19-539657-7.
  20. 1 2 3 Baran, S. J.; Davis, D. K. (2015). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future (Seventh edition.). Cengage Learning. pp. 328–331. ISBN   978-81-315-2912-6.
  21. ↑ Best, Steven (2011). "Introduction: Pathologies of Power and the Rise of the Global Industrial Complex". In Steven Best; Richard Kahn; Anthony J. Nocella II; Peter McLaren (eds.). The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. ix–xxv. ISBN   978-0-7391-3698-0.
  22. ↑ Beirne, Piers (May 2021). "Wildlife Trade and COVID-19: Towards a Criminology of Anthropogenic Pathogen Spillover". The British Journal of Criminology. 61 (3). Oxford University Press: 607–626. doi:10.1093/bjc/azaa084. ISSN   1464-3529. PMC   7953978 . Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  23. ↑ Arcari, Paula (May 2020). "Disconnection & Demonisation: COVID-19 Shows Why We Need to Stop Commodifying All Animals". Social Sciences & Humanities Open. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3599772. S2CID   225822910 . Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  24. ↑ Repka, Meneka (2019). Nocella Ii, Anthony J; Drew, Carolyn; George, Amber E; Ketenci, Sinem; Lupinacci, John; Purdy, Ian; Leeson-Schatz, Joe (eds.). Education for Total Liberation: Critical Animal Pedagogy and Teaching Against Speciesism. Radical Animal Studies and Total Liberation (1 ed.). New York: Peter Lang. doi:10.3726/b14204. ISBN   978-1-4331-5789-9. S2CID   240272942.
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  27. ↑ Hedges, Chris (3 August 2015). "A Haven From the Animal Holocaust". Truthdig . Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  28. ↑ Rinehart, Nicholas T (1 September 2016). "The Man That Was a Thing: Reconsidering Human Commodification in Slavery". Journal of Social History. 50 (1): 28–50. doi:10.1093/jsh/shv129. ISSN   0022-4529.
  29. ↑ Patel, Nayana Hitesh; Jadeja, Yuvraj Digvijaysingh; Bhadarka, Harsha Karsan; Patel, Molina Niket; Patel, Niket Hitesh; Sodagar, Nilofar Rahematkhan (2018). "Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices". Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences. 11 (3): 212–218. doi: 10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17 . ISSN   0974-1208. PMC   6262674 . PMID   30568349.
  30. ↑ Neal, M. (1 April 2011). "Protecting Women: Preserving Autonomy in the Commodification of Motherhood". William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, and Social Justice. 17 (3): 611. ISSN   1081-549X.
  31. ↑ Rowe, David (July 2009). "Media and Sport: The Cultural Dynamics of Global Games". Sociology Compass. 3 (4): 543–558. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2009.00225.x.
  32. ↑ Watson, Cate (December 2011). "Test Match Special, Twenty20 and the future of cricket". Sport in Society. 14 (10): 1383–1394. doi:10.1080/17430437.2011.620379. S2CID   145758426.
  33. ↑ Dunn, Jennifer C.; Vik, Tennley A. (1 September 2014). "Virginity for Sale: A Foucauldian Moment in the History of Sexuality". Sexuality & Culture. 18 (3): 487–504. doi:10.1007/s12119-013-9207-0. ISSN   1936-4822. S2CID   143947497 . Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  34. ↑ Capron, Alexander M. (2017). "Human Commodification: Professions, Governments, and the Need for Further Exploration". New Cannibal Markets: Globalization and Commodification of the Human Body. Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme. pp. 397–416. ISBN   978-2-7351-2285-1.
  35. ↑ Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (PDF). Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-691-09457-8.
  36. ↑ Ess, Charles (2020). Digital media ethics (Third ed.). Cambridge Medford, MA: Polity. ISBN   978-1-5095-3342-8.
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  38. ↑ Jhally, S. (1987). The Political Economy of Culture.
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  41. ↑ Tunstall, J (1977). The media are American. Columbia University Press.
  42. ↑ Groom, Nick (2 October 2018). "Hallowe'en and Valentine: The Culture of Saints' Days in the English-Speaking World". Folklore. 129 (4): 331–352. doi:10.1080/0015587X.2018.1510651. ISSN   0015-587X. S2CID   165870855.
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  45. 1 2 Morton, Lisa (30 October 2015). "All hail the commodification of Halloween: Over the years, companies profiting off the holiday are what have made it an American favorite". nydailynews.com. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  46. ↑ hooks, bell 1992. Black Looks: Race and Representation (South End Press)
  47. ↑ Torgovnick, Marianna 1991. Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (Chicago)
  48. ↑ Cohen, Erik (1988). "Authenticity and commodification in tourism". Annals of Tourism Research. 15 (3): 371–386. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(88)90028-X.
  49. ↑ Lipton, L (2003). "In Selling Valentine's Day, U.S. Marketers Decide To Broaden 'Love' Concept --- Hotels Look Beyond Couples to Woo Singles, Pet Set; You, Me -- and Fido". The Wall Street Journal.
  50. ↑ Niemeyer, Katharina; Keightley, Emily (1 September 2020). "The commodification of time and memory: Online communities and the dynamics of commercially produced nostalgia". New Media & Society. 22 (9): 1639–1662. doi:10.1177/1461444820914869. ISSN   1461-4448. S2CID   214293153.
  51. ↑ Lupton, Deborah (2014). "The commodification of patient opinion: the digital patient experience economy in the age of big data". Sociology of Health & Illness. 36 (6): 856–869. doi: 10.1111/1467-9566.12109 . hdl: 2123/9063 . ISSN   1467-9566. PMID   24443847.
  52. ↑ Currah, Andrew (1 August 2007). "Managing creativity: the tensions between commodities and gifts in a digital networked environment". Economy and Society. 36 (3): 467–494. doi:10.1080/03085140701428415. ISSN   0308-5147. S2CID   145631922.
  53. ↑ Jose, George (3 September 2017). "Hawa khaana in Vasai Virar". City. 21 (5): 632–640. Bibcode:2017City...21..632J. doi:10.1080/13604813.2017.1374779. ISSN   1360-4813. S2CID   149420789.
  54. ↑ Burawoy, Michael (31 May 2010). "From Polanyi to Pollyanna: The False Optimism of Global Labor Studies". Global Labour Journal. 1 (2). doi: 10.15173/glj.v1i2.1079 (inactive 25 November 2024). ISSN   1918-6711.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  55. ↑ Barlow, Maude (1 February 2001). "Commodification of water – the wrong prescription". Water Science and Technology. 43 (4): 79–84. Bibcode:2001WSTec..43...79B. doi:10.2166/wst.2001.0183. ISSN   0273-1223. PMID   11379230.
  56. ↑ "Public Reason – The Commodification of the Public Service of Water: A Normative Perspective". publicreason.ro. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  57. ↑ Spracklen, Karl; Spracklen, Beverley (1 April 2014). "The strange and spooky battle over bats and black dresses: The commodification of Whitby Goth Weekend and the loss of a subculture" (PDF). Tourist Studies. 14 (1): 86–102. doi:10.1177/1468797613511688. ISSN   1468-7976. S2CID   145623916.
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  59. ↑ Krier, Daniel; Swart, William J. (1 January 2016). "The Commodification of Spectacle: Spectators, Sponsors and the Outlaw Biker Diegesis at Sturgis". Critical Sociology. 42 (1): 11–32. doi:10.1177/0896920514524605. ISSN   0896-9205. S2CID   145097590.
  60. ↑ Austin, D. Mark; Gagne, Patricia; Orend, Angela (2010). "Commodification and Popular Imagery of the Biker in American Culture". The Journal of Popular Culture. 43 (5): 942–963. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2010.00781.x. ISSN   1540-5931.
  61. ↑ Kosut, Mary (2006). "An Ironic Fad: The Commodification and Consumption of Tattoos". The Journal of Popular Culture. 39 (6): 1035–1048. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00333.x . ISSN   1540-5931.
  62. ↑ Berger, Helen A. (25 September 2006). Witchcraft and Magic: Contemporary North America. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN   978-0-8122-1971-5.
  63. ↑ Schiele, Kristen; Venkatesh, Alladi (2 September 2016). "Regaining control through reclamation: how consumption subcultures preserve meaning and group identity after commodification". Consumption Markets & Culture. 19 (5): 427–450. doi:10.1080/10253866.2015.1135797. ISSN   1025-3866. S2CID   146815933.
  64. ↑ Russell, Constance L.; Ankenman, M. J. (1 January 1996). "Orangutans as Photographic Collectibles: Ecotourism and The Commodification of Nature". Tourism Recreation Research. 21 (1): 71–78. doi:10.1080/02508281.1996.11014765. ISSN   0250-8281.
  65. 1 2 Shepherd, Robert (1 August 2002). "Commodification, culture and tourism". Tourist Studies. 2 (2): 183–201. doi:10.1177/146879702761936653. ISSN   1468-7976. S2CID   55744323.
  66. ↑ Kirtsoglou, Elisabeth; Theodossopoulos, Dimitrios (1 June 2004). "'They are Taking Our Culture Away': Tourism and Culture Commodification in the Garifuna Community of Roatan". Critique of Anthropology. 24 (2): 135–157. doi:10.1177/0308275X04042650. ISSN   0308-275X. S2CID   144331095.
  67. ↑ Cousins, Jenny A.; Evans, James; Sadler, Jon (2009). "Selling Conservation? Scientific Legitimacy and the Commodification of Conservation Tourism". Ecology and Society. 14 (1). doi: 10.5751/ES-02804-140132 . hdl: 10535/3507 . ISSN   1708-3087. JSTOR   26268031.

Bibliography

Further reading

Polanyi, Karl. "The Self-Regulating Market," Economics as a Social Science, 2nd edn, 2004.

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