Four Fs (evolution)

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In evolutionary psychology, people often speak of the four Fs which are said to be the four basic and most primal drives (motivations or instincts) that animals (including humans) are evolutionarily adapted to have, follow, and achieve: fighting, fleeing, feeding and mating (the final word beginning with the letter "M" rather than "F" is a reticent allusion to the cruder synonym "fuck"). [1]

Contents

The list of the four activities appears to have been first introduced in the late 1950s and early 1960s in articles by psychologist Karl H. Pribram, with the fourth entry in the list being known by terms such as "sex" [2] : 11, 13  or occasionally "fornicating", [3] : 155  although he himself did not use the term "four Fs".

Conventionally, the four Fs were described as adaptations which helped the organism to find food, avoid danger, defend its territory, et cetera. However, in his book The Selfish Gene , Richard Dawkins argued that adaptive traits do not evolve to benefit individual organisms, but to benefit the passing on of genes. [4]

Four Fs and vertebrates

In the case of vertebrates, this list corresponds to the motivational behaviours that drive the activity in the hypothalamus, namely: fighting, fleeing, feeding and sexual functioning. The hypothalamus responds to these motivations by regulating activity in the endocrine system to release hormones to alter the behaviour of the animal. [5] These hormones include epinephrine (adrenaline) to increase blood flow and heart rate for a sufficient fight-or-flight response, [6] and ghrelin, which is commonly described as "the hunger hormone". [7]

In other animals

Species from other phyla than vertebrates, such as arthropods and sponges, do not possess a hypothalamus. Hormones that influence the behaviour of insects are excreted by neurosecretory cells (NCS) in the corpora cardiaca. [8] Sponges, despite not having a neurosystem, do show signs of behaviour in response to external stimuli, but not much is known about neuro-sensory mechanisms in sponges and whether they possess all four of these drives. [9]

In order to explore the influences of the hypothalamus as a drive on the four Fs, researchers lesioned the lateral areas of the hypothalamus of rats. This resulted in a reduction in the interest of eating (feeding). If these animals were not fed or cared for, they starved to death, even when enough food was present around them. The influence of the hypothalamus is also clear when researchers overstimulated the hypothalamus. When the lateral areas of the hypothalamus were treated with electrical brain stimulation (EBS), the animals would start eating uncontrollably, which resulted in gaining excess weight rapidly. [10] [11] [12]

The hypothalamus consists of clusters of highly similarly functioning nerve cells. These nerve cells operate so intimately that signals may get misinterpreted. Optogenetic stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus in male mice resulted in aggressive attacks towards male and female mice. When this area was controlled by silencing the ventromedial nucleus, mice showed increased interest in mating, showing a relationship between the responses to fighting and fornicating. [13]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endocrine system</span> Hormone-producing glands of a body

The endocrine system is a messenger system in an organism comprising feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands directly into the circulatory system and that target and regulate distant organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamus</span> Area of the brain below the thalamus

The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain that contains a number of nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system. It forms the ventral part of the diencephalon. All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is the size of an almond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aggression</span> Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness

Aggression is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though often done with the intent to cause harm, it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proopiomelanocortin</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor polypeptide with 241 amino acid residues. POMC is synthesized in corticotrophs of the anterior pituitary from the 267-amino-acid-long polypeptide precursor pre-pro-opiomelanocortin (pre-POMC), by the removal of a 26-amino-acid-long signal peptide sequence during translation. POMC is part of the central melanocortin system.

Appetite is the desire to eat food items, usually due to hunger. Appealing foods can stimulate appetite even when hunger is absent, although appetite can be greatly reduced by satiety. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Appetite has a relationship with every individual's behavior. Appetitive behaviour also known as approach behaviour, and consummatory behaviour, are the only processes that involve energy intake, whereas all other behaviours affect the release of energy. When stressed, appetite levels may increase and result in an increase of food intake. Decreased desire to eat is termed anorexia, while polyphagia is increased eating. Dysregulation of appetite contributes to anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, cachexia, overeating, and binge eating disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Instinct</span> Behaviour due to innate biological factors

Instinct is the inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behaviour, containing innate (inborn) elements. The simplest example of an instinctive behaviour is a fixed action pattern (FAP), in which a very short to medium length sequence of actions, without variation, are carried out in response to a corresponding clearly defined stimulus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arcuate nucleus</span>

The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus is an aggregation of neurons in the mediobasal hypothalamus, adjacent to the third ventricle and the median eminence. The arcuate nucleus includes several important and diverse populations of neurons that help mediate different neuroendocrine and physiological functions, including neuroendocrine neurons, centrally projecting neurons, and astrocytes. The populations of neurons found in the arcuate nucleus are based on the hormones they secrete or interact with and are responsible for hypothalamic function, such as regulating hormones released from the pituitary gland or secreting their own hormones. Neurons in this region are also responsible for integrating information and providing inputs to other nuclei in the hypothalamus or inputs to areas outside this region of the brain. These neurons, generated from the ventral part of the periventricular epithelium during embryonic development, locate dorsally in the hypothalamus, becoming part of the ventromedial hypothalamic region. The function of the arcuate nucleus relies on its diversity of neurons, but its central role is involved in homeostasis. The arcuate nucleus provides many physiological roles involved in feeding, metabolism, fertility, and cardiovascular regulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ghrelin</span> Peptide hormone involved in appetite regulation

Ghrelin is a hormone primarily produced by enteroendocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract, especially the stomach, and is often called a "hunger hormone" because it increases the drive to eat. Blood levels of ghrelin are highest before meals when hungry, returning to lower levels after mealtimes. Ghrelin may help prepare for food intake by increasing gastric motility and stimulating the secretion of gastric acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lordosis behavior</span> Body posture in mammals for sexual receptivity

Lordosis behavior, also known as mammalian lordosis or presenting, is the naturally occurring body posture for sexual receptivity to copulation present in females of most mammals including rodents, elephants, and cats. The primary characteristics of the behavior are a lowering of the forelimbs but with the rear limbs extended and hips raised, ventral arching of the spine and a raising, or sideward displacement, of the tail. During lordosis, the spine curves dorsoventrally so that its apex points towards the abdomen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agouti-related peptide</span> Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Agouti-related protein (AgRP), also called agouti-related peptide, is a neuropeptide produced in the brain by the AgRP/NPY neuron. It is synthesized in neuropeptide Y (NPY)-containing cell bodies located in the ventromedial part of the arcuate nucleus in the hypothalamus. AgRP is co-expressed with NPY and acts to increase appetite and decrease metabolism and energy expenditure. It is one of the most potent and long-lasting of appetite stimulators. In humans, the agouti-related peptide is encoded by the AGRP gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus</span> Nucleus of the hypothalamus

The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus is a nucleus of the hypothalamus. In 2007, Kurrasch et al. found that the ventromedial hypothalamus is a distinct morphological nucleus involved in terminating hunger, fear, thermoregulation, and sexual activity. This nuclear region is involved in the recognition of the feeling of fullness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lateral hypothalamus</span>

The lateral hypothalamus (LH), also called the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), contains the primary orexinergic nucleus within the hypothalamus that widely projects throughout the nervous system; this system of neurons mediates an array of cognitive and physical processes, such as promoting feeding behavior and arousal, reducing pain perception, and regulating body temperature, digestive functions, and blood pressure, among many others. Clinically significant disorders that involve dysfunctions of the orexinergic projection system include narcolepsy, motility disorders or functional gastrointestinal disorders involving visceral hypersensitivity, and eating disorders.

Epsilon cells (ε-cells) are one of the five types of endocrine cells found in regions of the pancreas called Islets of Langerhans. Epsilon cells produce the hormone ghrelin that induces hunger. They were first discovered in mice. In humans, these cells compose less than 1% of all islet cells. They are connected by tight junctions that allow impermeability to water-soluble compounds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Growth hormone secretagogue receptor</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Growth hormone secretagogue receptor(GHS-R), also known as ghrelin receptor, is a G protein-coupled receptor that binds growth hormone secretagogues (GHSs), such as ghrelin, the "hunger hormone". The role of GHS-R is thought to be in regulating energy homeostasis and body weight. In the brain, they are most highly expressed in the hypothalamus, specifically the ventromedial nucleus and arcuate nucleus. GSH-Rs are also expressed in other areas of the brain, including the ventral tegmental area, hippocampus, and substantia nigra. Outside the central nervous system, too, GSH-Rs are also found in the liver, in skeletal muscle, and even in the heart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agonistic behaviour</span> Any social behaviour related to fighting

Agonistic behaviour is any social behaviour related to fighting. The term has broader meaning than aggressive behaviour because it includes threats, displays, retreats, placation, and conciliation. The term "agonistic behaviour" was first defined and used by J.P Scott and Emil Fredericson in 1951 in their paper "The Causes of Fighting in Mice and Rats" in Physiological Zoology.Agonistic behaviour is seen in many animal species because resources including food, shelter, and mates are often limited.

Hunger is a sensation that motivates the consumption of food. The sensation of hunger typically manifests after only a few hours without eating and is generally considered to be unpleasant. Satiety occurs between 5 and 20 minutes after eating. There are several theories about how the feeling of hunger arises. The desire to eat food, or appetite, is another sensation experienced with regard to eating.

Parabiosis is a laboratory technique used in physiological research, derived from the Greek word meaning "living beside." The technique involves the surgical joining of two living organisms in such a way that they develop a single, shared physiological system. Through this unique approach, researchers can study the exchange of blood, hormones, and other substances between the two organisms, allowing for the examination of a wide range of physiological phenomena and interactions. Parabiosis has been employed in various fields of study, including stem cell research, endocrinology, aging research, and immunology.

Ingestive behaviors encompass all eating and drinking behaviors. These actions are influenced by physiological regulatory mechanisms; these mechanisms exist to control and establish homeostasis within the human body. Disruptions in these ingestive regulatory mechanisms can result in eating disorders such as obesity, anorexia, and bulimia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pathophysiology of obesity</span> Physiological processes in obese people

Pathophysiology of obesity is the study of disordered physiological processes that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with obesity. A number of possible pathophysiological mechanisms have been identified which may contribute in the development and maintenance of obesity.

Dayu Lin is a neuroscientist and Professor of Psychiatry, Neuroscience and Physiology at the New York University Grossman School of Medicine in New York City. Lin discovered the neural circuits in the hypothalamus that give rise to aggression in mice. Her lab at NYU now probes the neural circuits underlying innate social behaviors, with a focus on aggressive and defensive behaviors.

References

  1. ↑ Kurzban, Robert (2011). Why Everyone (Else) Is a Hypocrite: Evolution and the Modular Mind. Princeton University Press. p. 159. ISBN   978-1-4008-3599-7 . Retrieved April 24, 2022.
  2. ↑ Pribram, Karl H. (January 1960). "A Review of Theory in Physiological Psychology" (PDF). Annual Review of Psychology . 60 (1): 1–40. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.11.020160.000245.
  3. ↑ Pribram, Karl H. (1958). "Chapter 7: Comparative Neurology and the Evolution of Behavior" (PDF). In Roe, Anne; Simpson, George Gaylord (eds.). Behavior and Evolution. Yale University Press. pp. 140–164.
  4. ↑ Linquist, Stefan Paul (2010). The evolution of culture. Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN   978-0754627616. OCLC   619142755.
  5. ↑ Lambert, Kelly (2011). "A Tale of Two Rodents". Scientific American Mind. 22 (4): 36–43. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0911-36.
  6. ↑ Lieberman, Michael (2013). Marks' basic medical biochemistry : a clinical approach. Marks, Allan D., Peet, Alisa. (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN   9781608315727. OCLC   769803483.
  7. ↑ Sakata, Ichiro; Sakai, Takafumi (2010). "Ghrelin cells in the gastrointestinal tract". International Journal of Peptides. 2010: 1–7. doi: 10.1155/2010/945056 . ISSN   1687-9775. PMC   2925405 . PMID   20798855.
  8. ↑ Truman, James W.; Riddiford, Lynn M. (1974). Hormonal Mechanisms Underlying Insect Behaviour. Advances in Insect Physiology. Vol. 10. pp. 297–352. doi:10.1016/s0065-2806(08)60132-0. ISBN   9780120242108.
  9. ↑ Renard, Emmanuelle; Vacelet, Jean; Gazave, Eve; Lapébie, Pascal; Borchiellini, Carole; Ereskovsky, Alexander V. (2009-09-01). "Origin of the neuro-sensory system: new and expected insights from sponges". Integrative Zoology. 4 (3): 294–308. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2009.00167.x . ISSN   1749-4877. PMID   21392302. S2CID   205928095.
  10. ↑ Weiten, Wayne (2012). Psychology: themes and variations (9th ed.). Belmont, Calif.: Cengage/Wadsworth. ISBN   9781111354749. OCLC   776541087.
  11. ↑ Squire, Larry R. (2013). Fundamental neuroscience (4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN   9780123858719. OCLC   830351091.
  12. ↑ Keesey, R. E.; Powley, T. L. (September 1975). "Hypothalamic regulation of body weight". American Scientist. 63 (5): 558–565. Bibcode:1975AmSci..63..558K. ISSN   0003-0996. PMID   1163887.
  13. ↑ Lin, Dayu; Boyle, Maureen P.; Dollar, Piotr; Lee, Hyosang; Lein, E. S.; Perona, Pietro; Anderson, David J. (2011). "Functional identification of an aggression locus in the mouse hypothalamus". Nature. 470 (7333): 221–226. Bibcode:2011Natur.470..221L. doi:10.1038/nature09736. PMC   3075820 . PMID   21307935.
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