Frank Sinatra and Jewish activism

Last updated
Sinatra and children in Israel in 1962 Sinatra and Israeli children 1962.jpg
Sinatra and children in Israel in 1962

Frank Sinatra was a strong supporter and activist for Jewish causes in the United States and Israel. According to Santopietro, Sinatra was a "lifelong sympathizer with Jewish causes". [1] Sinatra participated in Hollywood protests and productions supporting Jews during the Holocaust and the formation of the State of Israel. He actively fund-raised for Israel Bonds, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Simon Wiesenthal Center, and helped establish two intercultural centers in Israel which bear his name. Due to his support of Israel, his recordings and films were banned by the Arab League and by Lebanon.

Contents

Personal relationships with Jews

Sinatra became friendly with Jewish individuals in his youth. His Jewish neighbor, Mrs. Golden, often babysat him while his mother was out working. She spoke to him in Yiddish and served him coffee cake and apples. [2] For many years Sinatra wore a mezuzah charm that Golden had given him. [2] In 1944 Sinatra insisted on a Jewish friend, Manie Sacks, serving as godfather at his son's baptism over the vociferous protests of the priest. [3]

According to Swan, Sinatra despised racial prejudice and was quick to put a stop to it. Sinatra said: "When I was a kid and someone called me a 'dirty little Guinea', there was only one thing to do – break his head...Let anyone yell wop or Jew or nigger around us, we taught him not to do it again". [4] Once he heard a reporter call someone a "Jew bastard" at a party and punched out the speaker. [4] When Sinatra heard that some golf clubs restricted Jews from membership, he became the second non-Jew to join a club with a majority Jewish membership. [3]

Holocaust era

Sinatra's support of religious freedom found expression in support for Jews that were being persecuted during the Holocaust. [5] [3] In 1942, when the first reports of Nazi brutality against Jews reached the United States, Sinatra ordered hundreds of medallions struck with an image of Saint Christopher on one side and the Star of David on the other, and had them delivered to U.S. soldiers stationed in Europe as well as friends, business associates, and policemen who had provided security at his concerts. [3] [6]

In 1943 he joined the national tour of We Will Never Die , a four-month, six-city dramatic pageant staged by Ben Hecht to focus public attention on the Holocaust. [7] In 1945 Sinatra starred in The House I Live In , a ten-minute short film about antisemitism and religious tolerance that won an Honorary Academy Award and was added to the National Film Registry in the Library of Congress in 2007. [6] [8]

Post-war support of Israel

Sinatra and Ben-Gurion Ben-Gurion and Sinatra 1962.jpg
Sinatra and Ben-Gurion

Like many of his contemporaries, Sinatra supported the establishment of the State of Israel. [3] In September 1947, when the United Nations was weighing ratification of its Partition Plan for Palestine which would create a Jewish state, Sinatra performed at an Action for Palestine rally at the Hollywood Bowl that drew 20,000 supporters. [3] [9]

Sinatra was personally involved in a clandestine operation in New York City in March 1948 on behalf of the Haganah, Israel's pre-state paramilitary organization. The Haganah had established a base in New York to smuggle arms to Palestine over a U.S. embargo. The Haganah was headquartered in the Hotel 14, located on the same premises as the Copacabana nightclub, and was under continual surveillance by Federal agents. Haganah representative Teddy Kollek saw Sinatra at the Copacabana bar and enlisted his help for an undercover operation. According to Kollek: [10]

I had an Irish ship captain sitting in the port of New York with a ship full of munitions destined for Israel. He had phony bills of lading and was to take the shipment outside the three-mile limit and transfer it on to another ship. But a large sum of money had to be handed over, and I didn't know how to get it to him. If I walked out the door carrying the cash, the Feds would intercept me and wind up confiscating the munitions. I went downstairs to the bar and Sinatra came over, and we were talking. I don't know what came over me, but I told him what I was doing in the United States and what my dilemma was. And in the early hours of the following morning I walked out the front door of the building with a satchel, and the Feds followed me. Out the back door went Frank Sinatra, carrying a paper bag filled with cash [estimated at $1 million]. He went down to the pier, handed it over, and watched the ship sail.

Sinatra told his daughter Nancy, "It was the beginning of a young nation. I wanted to help, I was afraid they might fall down". [10] According to Lehman, Sinatra "believed Zionism was a righteous cause". [11] The arms that Sinatra assisted Kollek to smuggle out of the United States would likely have arrived during the Nakba, the violent displacement and dispossession of Palestinians which occurred from 1948 until 1949.

Visits to Israel

Sinatra in Nazareth in 1962 Sinatra in Nazareth 1962.jpg
Sinatra in Nazareth in 1962

1962: World Tour for Children

In 1962, Sinatra visited Israel for the first time as part of his multinational World Tour for Children. The tour, which raised over $1 million for children's charities around the globe, had stops in Japan, Hong Kong, England, France, Italy, Greece and Israel. [12] In Israel, Sinatra gave seven concerts in six cities. [9] His visit coincided with the country's annual Yom Ha'atzmaut (Independence Day) celebrations. Sinatra sang at the official Independence Day event in Tel Aviv and was seated beside Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion and General Moshe Dayan on the reviewing stand during the Israel Defense Forces parade. [9] He also performed for troops at the Tel Nof Airbase [5] and delivered a speech in Jerusalem "urging people all over the world to support Israel". [6] A 30-minute short film, Sinatra in Israel, was later released with highlights of the visit. [9] [13]

In Nazareth, Sinatra purchased a lot near Mary's Well for the establishment of an intercultural youth center for Arab and Israeli children, to be built by the Histadrut trade union. He donated the $50,000 profit from his Israeli concerts to the project. [12]

According to George Jacobs, Sinatra's former valet, the 1962 tour was undertaken partly as an attempt to rehabilitate Sinatra's image into "the singing philanthropist" in the aftermath of his public fallout with John F. Kennedy and his Mafia ties becoming public knowledge. [14] Jacobs also added that on this visit Sinatra began to call himself the "King of the Jews", [15] and that he often made anti-Semitic remarks about Jewish business associates but would not do so while in Israel:

Mr. S adored Israel and Israel adored him right back. Here was a whole nation of underdogs and survivors, the people Sinatra respected most, people like himself who had beaten the odds. He was so awed by the place, so respectful, that he didn't tell a single one of his beloved 'Uncle Scrooge Cheap Jew' jokes the whole time we were there. These weren't the Beverly Hills fat cats who had treated him so badly, hence his bitter humour. These were battling pioneers. He was genuinely ashamed to have put them all in the same category. [16]

1964: Filming Cast a Giant Shadow

Sinatra returned to Israel in 1964 to film a cameo role in Cast a Giant Shadow , [10] a fictionalised account of the life of Jewish-American soldier Mickey Marcus who had fought with the Israeli Defence Forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Sinatra played Vince Talmadge, a freelance American fighter pilot commissioned by the IDF who drops seltzer bottles to give the illusion of bombs falling before being killed in action.

The film was written and directed by Melville Shavelson, who later wrote a book about the experience entitled How to Make a Jewish Movie. Shavelson wrote that he was familiar with Sinatra from having been in Kennedy's entourage during his inauguration, and that he knew Sinatra "was most likely to do was what he wasn't most likely to do." [17] During the shoot, Shavelson faced opposition from the Communist Party of Israel who, amongst other things, apparently considered Sinatra "a symbol of fascist oppression." The dispute was later resolved with the Communists who thanked Shavelson for having made changes to the screenplay, but this confused Shavelson as no such changes were ever discussed let alone made. [18]

Sinatra donated his entire $50,000 salary from Cast a Giant Shadow to the newly-constructed Frank Sinatra Brotherhood and Friendship Center for Arab and Israeli Children in Nazareth. [1] He attended the centre's opening, and gave the following speech:

I never grew up enough to really understand adults, but I think I understand kids. If we can get them together when they're young enough, maybe when they get big, they'll be smarter than we have been. [19]

1970s-1990s

In 1975, Sinatra performed at the Jerusalem Convention Center; this concert was released as the album Sinatra: The Jerusalem Concert. [5]

In 1995, Sinatra marked his 80th birthday with various celebrations, including a trip to Israel on his private plane together with several close friends, including Lee Iacocca and Walter Matthau. An entourage of some 100 participants spent time with him in Eilat, after which they toured Jordan and Egypt. [20]

The golden Uzi

According to Eliot Weisman's The Way It Was, Sinatra was at one stage gifted a golden Uzi by Israeli prime minister Golda Meir as a symbol of Israeli-American relations. The Uzi travelled with him on tour for many years. [21]

Fundraising

Sinatra planting a tree in Histadrut Forest of Jerusalem Sinatra planting tree 1962.jpg
Sinatra planting a tree in Histadrut Forest of Jerusalem

Sinatra raised significant funds for Jewish causes. In the wake of the Six-Day War in June 1967, he and other Hollywood entertainers pledged a total of $2.5 million to Israel at a cocktail party hosted by Jack L. Warner; Sinatra personally contributed $25,000. [22] In 1972 Sinatra raised $6.5 million in bond pledges for Israel, [23] and in 1975 announced he was personally giving $250,000 to Israel Bonds "in memory of my parents' neighbor, Mrs. Golden, in Hoboken". [24]

He raised significant money for the Hebrew University of Jerusalem including a $10,000 per couple reception in Chicago in 1977, and a $5,000 per couple trip to Israel in 1978. [25] [26] The Frank Sinatra International Student Center, funded in part by a Hollywood banquet hosted by Sinatra, opened in 1978. [9] [27] The building's cafeteria was later bombed by Hamas in 2002. [13] [28] Nine were killed and nearly 100 injured. [29]

Sinatra met Simon Wiesenthal for the first time in 1979, telling the Nazi hunter that "he had been his hero for many years". [30] When he found out that the Simon Wiesenthal Center was trying to produce the documentary Genocide , Sinatra told them, "Although I'm not Jewish, the Holocaust is important to me", and offered $100,000 to the project. [30] He also became a member of the Center's Board of Trustees. [30] In ensuing months, Sinatra made four appearances on behalf of the Center, bringing in $400,000 in funding for the film, [30] which won the 1981 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. [13]

Awards from Jewish groups

Arab blacklists

Citing the singer's support of Israel, the Arab League's Israeli Boycott Bureau in Cairo issued a ban on Sinatra's recordings and films in October 1962. [34] [35] In a statement, the Arab League said it had conclusively determined that Sinatra "participates in the distribution of Israel bonds and that he exerts efforts for the collection of funds to be sent to Israel". [34] With the signing of the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty, this ban was voided. [36]

In 1964 Sinatra was officially barred from entering Lebanon due to his "moral and material support of Israel". [37] In 2014 NBC News reported that a collection of Sinatra CDs were on display in the March Lebanon office in Beirut, with the note that they were banned for "Zionist tendencies". Sinatra's banned recordings are also posted on the group's website, the Virtual Museum of Censorship. [38]

Despite the ban, Sinatra albums and films still circulate in Lebanon. In 1964, at the same time the country announced it was barring Sinatra, one of his films was showing in Beirut. [37] In 1966 Billboard reported that the ban was having its effect on Middle East sales of Sinatra's international number-one single, "Strangers in the Night", but the disc was still being delivered to Lebanon from other countries. [35] The Virtual Museum of Censorship website acknowledges that despite the ban, Sinatra recordings are available in Lebanon. [39]

Related Research Articles

Antisemitism has increased greatly in the Arab world since the beginning of the 20th century, for several reasons: the dissolution and breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and traditional Islamic society; European influence, brought about by Western imperialism and Arab Christians; Nazi propaganda and relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world; resentment over Jewish nationalism; the rise of Arab nationalism; and the widespread proliferation of anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist conspiracy theories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frank Sinatra</span> American singer and actor (1915–1998)

Francis Albert Sinatra was an American singer and actor. Nicknamed the "Chairman of the Board" and later called "Ol' Blue Eyes", he is regarded as one of the most popular entertainers of the mid-20th century. Sinatra is among the world's best-selling music artists, with an estimated 150 million record sales globally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Israel</span>

The history of Israel covers an area of the Southern Levant also known as Canaan, Palestine or the Holy Land, which is the geographical location of the modern states of Israel and Palestine. From a prehistory as part of the critical Levantine corridor, which witnessed waves of early humans out of Africa, to the emergence of Natufian culture c. 10th millennium BCE, the region entered the Bronze Age c. 2,000 BCE with the development of Canaanite civilization, before being vassalized by Egypt in the Late Bronze Age. In the Iron Age, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were established, entities that were central to the origins of the Jewish and Samaritan peoples as well as the Abrahamic faith tradition. This has given rise to Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, Islam, Druzism, Baha'ism, and a variety of other religious movements. Throughout the course of human history, the Land of Israel has come under the sway or control of various polities and, as a result, it has historically hosted a wide variety of ethnic groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Irgun</span> Zionist paramilitary organization (1931–48)

The Irgun, or Etzel, was a Zionist paramilitary organization that operated in Mandatory Palestine between 1931 and 1948. It was an offshoot of the older and larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah. The Irgun has been viewed as a terrorist organization or organization which carried out terrorist acts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menachem Begin</span> 6th Prime Minister of Israel (1913–1992)

Menachem Begin was an Israeli politician, founder of Likud and the sixth Prime Minister of Israel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1948 Arab–Israeli War</span> Second and final stage of the 1947–1949 Palestine war

The 1948 Arab–Israeli War, also known as the First Arab–Israeli War, followed the civil war in Mandatory Palestine as the second and final stage of the 1948 Palestine war. The civil war became a war of separate states with the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948, the end of the British Mandate for Palestine at midnight, and the entry of a military coalition of Arab states into the territory of Mandatory Palestine the following morning. The war formally ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements which established the Green Line.

Haganah was the main Zionist paramilitary organization that operated for the Yishuv in the British Mandate for Palestine. It was founded in 1920 to defend the Yishuv's presence in the region, and was formally disbanded in 1948, when it became the core force integrated into the Israel Defense Forces shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yishuv</span> Jewish entity in Palestine before the establishment of the State of Israel

Yishuv, HaYishuv HaIvri, or HaYishuv HaYehudi Be'Eretz Yisra'el denotes the body of Jewish residents in Palestine prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. The term came into use in the 1880s, when there were about 25,000 Jews living in that region, and continued to be used until 1948, by which time there were some 630,000 Jews there. The term is still in use to denote the pre-1948 Jewish residents in Palestine, corresponding to the southern part of Ottoman Syria until 1918, OETA South in 1917–1920, and Mandatory Palestine in 1920–1948.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yitzhak Navon</span> Israeli politician (1921–2015)

Yitzhak Rachamim Navon was an Israeli politician, diplomat, playwright, and author. He served as the fifth President of Israel between 1978 and 1983 as a member of the centre-left Alignment party. He was the first Israeli president born in Jerusalem and the first Sephardi Jew to serve in that office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teddy Kollek</span> Israeli politician (1911–2007)

Theodor "Teddy" Kollek was an Israeli politician who served as the mayor of Jerusalem from 1965 to 1993, and founder of the Jerusalem Foundation. Kollek was re-elected five times, in 1969, 1973, 1978, 1983, and 1989. After reluctantly running for a seventh term in 1993 at the age of 82, he lost to Likud candidate and future Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert.

<i>Judenfrei</i> Nazi term referring to areas that are "free/clean of Jews"

Judenfrei and judenrein are terms of Nazi origin to designate an area that has been "cleansed" of Jews during The Holocaust. While judenfrei refers merely to "freeing" an area of all of its Jewish inhabitants, the term judenrein has the even stronger connotation that any trace of Jewish blood had been removed as an alleged impurity in the minds of the criminal perpetrators. These terms of racial discrimination and racial abuse are intrinsic to Nazi anti-Semitism and were used by the Nazis in Germany before World War II and in occupied countries such as Poland in 1939. Judenfrei describes the local Jewish population having been removed from a town, region, or country by forced evacuation during the Holocaust, though many Jews were hidden by local people. Removal methods included forced re-housing in Nazi ghettos especially in eastern Europe, and forced removal or Resettlement to the East by German troops, often to their deaths. Most Jews were identified from late 1941 by the yellow badge as a result of pressure from Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler.

<i>Cast a Giant Shadow</i> 1966 film by Melville Shavelson

Cast a Giant Shadow is a 1966 American action film based on the life of Colonel Mickey Marcus, and stars Kirk Douglas, Senta Berger, Yul Brynner, John Wayne, Frank Sinatra and Angie Dickinson. Melville Shavelson adapted, produced and directed. The film is a fictionalized account of the experiences of a real-life Jewish-American military officer, Colonel David "Mickey" Marcus, who commanded units of the fledgling Israel Defense Forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marvin Hier</span> American rabbi, film producer, and non-profit executive

Marvin Hier is the dean and founder of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, its Museum of Tolerance and of Moriah, the center's film division. He has been a Track II diplomacy contributor to the genesis of the Abraham Accords.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mandelbaum Gate</span>

The Mandelbaum Gate is a former checkpoint between the Israeli and Jordanian sectors of Jerusalem, just north of the western edge of the Old City along the Green Line. The first checkpoint for the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan/Israel Mixed Armistice Commission at the Mandelbaum Gate, from the close of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War in 1949 until August 1952, was moved from the Israeli side of the Gate to the Demilitarised Zone after the "Barrel Incident". The second checkpoint existed until the 1967 Six-Day War. The Gate became a symbol of the divided status of the city.

The 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine was the first phase of the 1947–1949 Palestine war. It broke out after the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a resolution on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption of the Partition Plan for Palestine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Elkins</span>

Michael Elkins was an American broadcaster and journalist who worked for the American network, CBS, for the magazine Newsweek and then for 17 years with the BBC. He was the first to report Israel's destruction of Arab air forces on the opening day of the Six-Day War in 1967. CBS did not trust his report and he left.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uri Lubrani</span> Israeli diplomat and military official (1926-2018)

Uriel Lubrani was an Israeli diplomat and military official. In 1964, he joined the diplomatic corps of the Foreign Ministry, and was appointed ambassador to Uganda and non-resident ambassador to Burundi and Rwanda, serving until 1967. From 1967 to 1971, he was ambassador to Ethiopia. From 1973 to 1978, he was ambassador to the Imperial State of Iran.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1948 Palestine war</span> First war of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict

The 1948 Palestine war was fought in the territory of what had been, at the start of the war, British-ruled Mandatory Palestine. During the war, the British withdrew from Palestine, Zionist forces conquered territory and established the State of Israel, and over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled. It was the first war of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the broader Arab–Israeli conflict.

Throughout his life, Frank Sinatra, the musician and actor, was involved in many different political activities in the United States. He also held positive views toward African Americans at a time when much of the United States still had segregation.

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 Santopietro 2008, p. 376.
  2. 1 2 Summers & Swan 2007, p. 17.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Summers & Swan 2007, p. 115.
  4. 1 2 Summers & Swan 2007, p. 109.
  5. 1 2 3 Hendelman, Ariel (11 July 2015). "Even in Israel, Frank Sinatra always did it his way". The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  6. 1 2 3 Kohansky, Rolly King (Apr 2012). "Frank Sinatra and the Jewish Connection". Esra Magazine (164).
  7. ↑ Lebovic, Matt (9 March 2013). "The First Time Hollywood Exposed the Holocaust". The Times of Israel . Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  8. ↑ "Librarian of Congress Announces National Film Registry Selections for 2007 (press release)". Library of Congress. 27 December 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Goldman, Shalom (14 May 2015). "'Mr. Sinatra Adored Israel, and Israel Adored Him Back'". Tablet . Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  10. 1 2 3 Summers & Swan 2007, p. 116.
  11. ↑ Ivry, Benjamin (7 October 2015). "Frank Sinatra's Love Affair with the Jewish People". The Forward . Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  12. 1 2 Karolyi, Paul (29 August 2012). "Frank Sinatra's Legacy in Nazareth". +972 Magazine . Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  13. 1 2 3 Winston-Macauley, Marnie (14 October 2012). "Stars of David: Frank Sinatra". Aish.com . Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  14. ↑ Jacobs & Stadiem 2003, p. 178.
  15. ↑ Jacobs & Stadiem 2003, p. 213.
  16. ↑ Jacobs & Stadiem 2003, p. 188.
  17. ↑ Shavelson, Melville (1971). How to Make a Jewish Movie. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall.
  18. ↑ Shavelson, p. 175.
  19. ↑ Shavelson, p. 176.
  20. ↑ Shani, Celia (22 December 1995). "Sinatra to celebrate 80th birthday his way – in Israel". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  21. ↑ Weisman, Eliot (2017). The way it was: my life with Frank Sinatra. p. 113.
  22. ↑ "Movie's Who's Who Shell Out $2.5 Million for Israel". Milwaukee Sentinel. Associated Press. 19 June 1967. p. 3.
  23. ↑ Sinatra 1986, p. 231.
  24. ↑ Wilson, Earl (6 November 1975). "Diplomatic Kissinger is a Crowd Pleaser". Milwaukee Sentinel. p. 17. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  25. 1 2 "Frank Sinatra Wins Israel's Cultural Award". The Montreal Gazette . 7 June 1977. p. 38. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  26. ↑ Eder, Shirley (19 April 1978). "Wailing Wall Works for Grateful Totie". The Evening Independent. p. 12B. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  27. ↑ Summers & Swan 2007, p. 118.
  28. ↑ Goldenberg, Suzanne (1 August 2002). "Bomb Kills Seven At University". The Guardian . Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  29. ↑ "Ten years since terrorist bombing at Hebrew University". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 31 July 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Hier, Marvin (1997). "Postscript: The Making of the Film Genocide". Simon Wiesenthal Center . Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  31. ↑ Sinatra 1986, p. 301.
  32. ↑ "New Role for Agnew at Sinatra Tribute". Toledo Blade. Associated Press. 1 November 1972. p. 3. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  33. ↑ "Sinatra Honored in Israel". The Victoria Advocate . 16 November 1976. p. 6B. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  34. 1 2 "Arabs Ban Sinatra's Movies and Records for Helping Israel Bond Drive". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 10 October 1962. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  35. 1 2 "Arabs Treat Frank Like a Stranger". Billboard . Vol. 78, no. 47. 19 November 1966. p. 13. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  36. ↑ "Frank Sinatra". Kentucky New Era. Associated Press. 21 September 1979. p. 5. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  37. 1 2 "Lebanon Bans Frank Sinatra". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . 18 July 1964. p. 5. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  38. ↑ Shelton, Tracey (5 March 2014). "Why Lebanon Censors Frank Sinatra, 'The West Wing'". NBC News . Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  39. ↑ "Frank Sinatra". Virtual Museum of Censorship. Retrieved 15 November 2015.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.