GADD45G

Last updated
GADD45G
Protein GADD45G PDB 2WAL.png
Available structures
PDB Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
Aliases GADD45G , CR6, DDIT2, GADD45gamma, GRP17, growth arrest and DNA damage inducible gamma
External IDs OMIM: 604949 MGI: 1346325 HomoloGene: 21334 GeneCards: GADD45G
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

10912

23882

Ensembl

ENSG00000130222

ENSMUSG00000021453

UniProt

O95257

Q9Z111
Q9R0S0

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_006705

NM_011817

RefSeq (protein)

NP_006696

NP_035947

Location (UCSC) Chr 9: 89.61 – 89.61 Mb Chr 13: 52 – 52 Mb
PubMed search [3] [4]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse

Growth arrest and DNA-damage-inducible protein GADD45 gamma is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GADD45G gene on chromosome 9. GADD45G is also known as CR6, DDIT2, GRP17, OIG37, and GADD45gamma. [5] GADD45G is involved in several different processes, including sexual development, [6] human-specific brain development, [7] tumor suppression, [8] and the cellular stress response. [9] GADD45G interacts with several other proteins that are involved in DNA repair, cell cycle control, apoptosis, and senescence. [6] Low expression of GADD45G has been associated with many types of cancer. [10]

Contents

History

GADD45G was originally cloned by Beadling under the name CR6 in 1993. In this experiment, several genes including GADD45G were noted for being induced by IL-2, and they were identified as immediate early response genes in T lymphocytes. [11] Its role as a tumor suppressor was discovered in 1999 by Zhang. [12] It received the name OIG37 from Nakayama due to its regulation by Oncostatin M, which was found to be able to inhibit growth. [13] Finally, it also became known as Gadd-related protein 17 during its isolation from a cDNA library by Suzuki due to its homology with Gadd45. [5]

Structure and function

GADD45G is a member of a group of genes whose transcript levels are increased following stressful growth arrest conditions and treatment with DNA-damaging agents. The protein encoded by this gene responds to environmental stresses by mediating activation of the p38/JNK pathway via MTK1/MEKK4 kinase. [14] GADD45G is in turn regulated upstream by NF-κB. [8]

The crystal structure of GADD45G reveals a dimer made of four parallel helices. The central region contains a highly acidic patch where it allows for interaction with cdc2, PCNA, and p21. The parallel isoform of GADD45G is the active form. [15]

This gene plays a role in cell cycle regulation. GADD45G prevents the kinase ability of the cyclin b1/Cdk1 complex in a fashion that does not break apart the complex. It plays a role in the activation of the S and G2/M checkpoints. [16]

In the male sexual development pathway, GADD45G is essential for activating SRY, leading to proper formation of the gonads and sex-determination. This could occur through GADD45G interaction with the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. [6]

Deletion of an enhancer close to the GADD45G gene is correlated to increased proliferation of neuronal cells, which could account for part of the difference in neural development between humans and other species. [7] The deletion of the enhancer reduces the expression of the gene in the forebrain allowing for more brain growth in humans. [17]

GADD45G is involved with dental epithelial cell proliferation. GADD45G is expressed in enamel knots, where it regulates gene expression and cell growth. The gene modulates p21-mediated epithelial cell proliferation by activating the p38 MAPK pathway during the development of teeth. [18]

There is differential expression of the Xenopus homolog of GADD45G in embryonic development. It plays a large role in neural and brain development with GADD45A. GADD45G and GADD45A knockdowns are related to improper gastrulation, defective head growth, and shorter axes. GADD45G and GADD45A act redundantly to control cell growth, allow the cells to move from pluripotency helping cells differentiate. [19]

Memory

During a learning experience, a set of genes is rapidly expressed in the brain. This induced gene expression is thought to be important for processing the information being learned. Such genes are known as immediate early genes. Within the prelimbic prefrontal cortex, the GADD45G gene is immediately expressed and is required for the consolidation of a type of learning in mice termed associative fear memory. [20] In general, gene expression often can be epigenetically induced by demethylation of 5-methylcytosine(s) in gene promoter regions. The GADD45G protein functions in repair of DNA damage. GADD45G may also be involved in recognition of 5-methylcytosine as an alteration in DNA that needs to be repaired to allow induction of learning-related genes. Thus GADD45G may guide the rapid demethylation of methylcytosine in the promoter regions of learning-related genes by a DNA repair process [20] (see also Epigenetics in learning and memory).

Interactions

GADD45G carries out its many previously stated functions with many different interactions. GADD45G was found to inhibit Cdk1 kinase activity, which would cause disruption of cell growth. [16] It also interacts with CRIF, which causes the inhibition of Cdc2-cyclin B1 and Cdk-cyclin E. [21] GADD45 also works with the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, which can cause growth arrest as well. [22] GADD45G is found to be involved with the p38 MAPK pathway through interactions with MAP3K4, which can be important in sex-determination. [23] Additionally, GADD45G regulates DNA replication and repair through its interactions with PCNA. [13] [22]

Tissue distribution

In humans, GADD45G is expressed most in the skeletal muscle, kidney and liver. This gene has a low expression in the heart, brain, spleen, lung and testis. [8] GADD45G is highly expressed in the placenta. [24]

In the embryonic mouse, Gadd45g is expressed in the neural tube, cranial and dorsal root ganglia and the dorsal midbrain. [25]

Mammalian renal inner medullary (IM) cells routinely face and resist hypertonic stress. Such stress causes DNA damage to which IM cells respond with cell cycle arrest. All three GADD45 isoforms GADD45A, GADD45B, and GADD45G are induced by acute hypertonicity in murine IM cells. Maximum induction occurs 16-18 h after the onset of hypertonicity. GADD45G is induced more strongly (7-fold) than GADD45B (3-fold) and GADD45A (2-fold). Hypertonicity of various forms (NaCl, KCl, sorbitol, or mannitol) always induces GADD45 transcripts, whereas non-hypertonic hyperosmolality (urea) has no effect. Actinomycin D does not prevent hypertonic GADD45 induction, indicating that mRNA stabilization is the mechanism that mediates this induction. [26]

Clinical significance

In numerous kinds of cancerous cells, GADD45G is down regulated. [10] There is a low expression due to methylation of the GADD45G promoter. [18] This low expression can also be explained by increased NF-κB activation. [27]

GADD45G methylation is seen in many cancers. In esophageal cancer the expression level and methylation status of the gene are involved in the prognosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Demethylation of the gene can have some beneficial effects. [18] Similar circumstances are seen in gastric cardio adenocarcinomas where GADD45G is silenced. [28] GADD45G methylation levels are also measured in the diagnosis of pancreatic and colorectal cancers. [29]

In the pituitary gland, GADD45G is a growth suppressor. There is a loss of expression of the gene in many pituitary cancerous masses. [30] The gene plays a role in prostate cancer as a tumor suppressor as well. In these cancerous cells, Vitamin D can induce the expression of GADD45G. [31] GADD45G could possibly be a target of therapeutic benefit for prostate cancer. [32]

In cancerous liver cells, GADD45G is down regulated. It participates in negatively regulating the JAK-STAT3 signaling pathway. It acts as a tumor suppressor in HCC cells by promoting cell death or growth arrest. When GADD45G expression is low, liver cells may be able to bypass the growth arrest stage, leading to cancerous cells. [10]

The presence of GADD45G in the urinary system is also related to renal disease. The renal cells expressing the gene were damaged. [33]

The upregulation of Gadd45g due to hormones may account for the changes in the mouse uterus. [34]

See also

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References

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  2. 1 2 3 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000021453 - Ensembl, May 2017
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  4. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
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  15. ↑ Zhang W, Fu S, Liu X, Zhao X, Zhang W, Peng W, Wu C, Li Y, Li X, Bartlam M, Zeng ZH, Zhan Q, Rao Z (2011). "Crystal structure of human Gadd45γ [corrected] reveals an active dimer". Protein Cell. 2 (10): 814–26. doi:10.1007/s13238-011-1090-6. PMC   4875293 . PMID   22058036.
  16. 1 2 Vairapandi M, Balliet AG, Hoffman B, Liebermann DA (2002). "GADD45b and GADD45g are cdc2/cyclinB1 kinase inhibitors with a role in S and G2/M cell cycle checkpoints induced by genotoxic stress". J. Cell. Physiol. 192 (3): 327–38. doi:10.1002/jcp.10140. PMID   12124778. S2CID   19138273.
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  19. ↑ Kaufmann LT, Niehrs C (2011). "Gadd45a and Gadd45g regulate neural development and exit from pluripotency in Xenopus". Mechanisms of Development. 128 (7–10): 401–411. doi: 10.1016/j.mod.2011.08.002 . ISSN   0925-4773. PMID   21854844.
  20. 1 2 Li X, Marshall PR, Leighton LJ, Zajaczkowski EL, Wang Z, Madugalle SU, et al. (February 2019). "The DNA Repair-Associated Protein Gadd45γ Regulates the Temporal Coding of Immediate Early Gene Expression within the Prelimbic Prefrontal Cortex and Is Required for the Consolidation of Associative Fear Memory". The Journal of Neuroscience. 39 (6): 970–983. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2024-18.2018. PMC   6363930 . PMID   30545945.
  21. ↑ Chung HK, Yi YW, Jung NC, Kim D, Suh JM, Kim H, Park KC, Song JH, Kim DW, Hwang ES, Yoon SH, Bae YS, Kim JM, Bae I, Shong M (July 2003). "CR6-interacting factor 1 interacts with Gadd45 family proteins and modulates the cell cycle". J. Biol. Chem. 278 (30): 28079–88. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M212835200 . PMID   12716909.
  22. 1 2 Azam N, Vairapandi M, Zhang W, Hoffman B, Liebermann DA (Jan 2001). "Interaction of CR6 (GADD45gamma ) with proliferating cell nuclear antigen impedes negative growth control". J. Biol. Chem. 276 (4): 2766–74. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M005626200 . PMID   11022036.
  23. ↑ Warr N, Carre GA, Siggers P, Faleato JV, Brixey R, Pope M, Bogani D, Childers M, Wells S, Scudamore CL, Tedesco M, del Barco Barrantes I, Nebreda AR, Trainor PA, Greenfield A (November 2012). "Gadd45γ and Map3k4 interactions regulate mouse testis determination via p38 MAPK-mediated control of Sry expression". Dev. Cell. 23 (5): 1020–31. doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2012.09.016. PMC   3526779 . PMID   23102580.
  24. ↑ "Entrez Gene: GADD45G growth arrest and DNA-damage-inducible, gamma".
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  28. ↑ Guo W, Dong Z, Guo Y, Chen Z, Kuang G, Yang Z (2013). "Methylation-mediated repression of GADD45A and GADD45G expression in gastric cardia adenocarcinoma". International Journal of Cancer. 133 (9): 2043–2053. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28223 . ISSN   0020-7136. PMID   23616123. S2CID   36324243.
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  31. ↑ Flores O, Burnstein KL (2010). "GADD45gamma: a new vitamin D-regulated gene that is antiproliferative in prostate cancer cells". Endocrinology. 151 (10): 4654–64. doi:10.1210/en.2010-0434. PMC   2946153 . PMID   20739400.
  32. ↑ Liebermann DA, Hoffman B (October 2011). "Prostate cancer: JunD, Gadd45a and Gadd45g as therapeutic targets". Cell Cycle. 10 (20): 3428. doi: 10.4161/cc.10.20.17528 . PMID   22030693.
  33. ↑ Yu S, Cho J, Park I, Kim SJ, Kim H, Shin GT (2009). "Urinary GADD45gamma expression is associated with progression of lgA nephropathy". Am J Nephrol. 30 (2): 135–9. doi:10.1159/000209317. PMID   19293565. S2CID   46326535.
  34. ↑ Ivanga M, Labrie Y, Calvo E, Belleau P, Martel C, Pelletier G, Morissette J, Labrie F, Durocher F (2009). "Fine temporal analysis of DHT transcriptional modulation of the ATM/Gadd45g signaling pathways in the mouse uterus". Molecular Reproduction and Development. 76 (3): 278–288. doi:10.1002/mrd.20949. ISSN   1040-452X. PMID   18671277. S2CID   9149501.

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