| Hemicriconemoides mangiferae | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Nematoda |
| Class: | Secernentea |
| Order: | Tylenchida |
| Family: | Criconematidae |
| Genus: | Hemicriconemoides |
| Species: | H. mangiferae |
| Binomial name | |
| Hemicriconemoides mangiferae Siddiqi, (1961) | |
Hemicriconemoides mangiferae is a plant pathogenic nematode.
Hemicriconemoides mangiferae was discovered in 1961 by Siddiqi. It is one of the smallest plant parasitic nematodes. It was originally identified as a parasite of mango roots from India. [1] A complete description of developmental stages of H. mangiferae was provided by Pullikuth Ashokkumar and Sivagami Vadiveli in 1990., [2] [3]
H. Mangiferae has been reported in the following countries: Australia, Brazil, Egypt, Fiji, Ghana, India, Israel, Korea, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, South Africa, Sudan, Thailand, United States of America, Vietnam, Venezuela, and the West Indies. [4] [5]
H. Mangiferae is characterized by having a close fitting, transparent sheath cuticle. It is primarily an ectoparasitic nematode but has been observed completely inside roots of both mango and litchi fruit. The genital tract length, stylet length and body length are the major criteria in differentiating the H. mangiferae. [6] The body length is very short and stout with a long stylet. The procorpus is fused with the metacarpus to for a two part esophagus. Nematode is able to survive on many weed hosts.
The juvenile is a J1-J4, the J2 is what hatches out of the egg. J4 stage is where sexual differentiation occurs. Adult males do not feed or have a stylet. They are rare and not needed for reproduction. Parthenogenic reproduction may be the rule. [7] H. Mangiferae lays eggs in the soil once mating has occurred.
H. Mangiferae anterior becomes embedded in the cortex of the root. It is typically an ectoparasite of the root. It can become completely embedded in the root and become an endoparisite. Necrotic tissue is often found as a result of the nematode feeding. The roots will become stubby as an effect of the nematode feeding. Nutrient and water uptake is interrupted and this will cause the decline of the tree. [8] The visible symptoms can include leaf chlorosis, leaf tip burn, and excess fruit drop. The latter is the most noticeable symptom of infected trees. Levels of 6 nematodes per 1 cubic centimeter is considered detrimental to the tree. [9] When orchards are established you must make sure that you have nematode free stock. Soil fumigation is one way to make sure that this is achieved. [10]
Fruit yields can be maintained if infected trees are well irrigated and fertilized. Chemical options include pre-planting chemicals to treat the soil. 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane can be used but it is restricted in many countries including the USA. High organic content in the rhizosphere can be used to have a temporary decline for the nematode population. The management of this nematode is difficult. It is almost impossible to get rid of the nematode once you have an infection. The nematodes effects can be easily overcome by having an efficient and good irrigation and fertilization program you can overcome and fruit yield loss. [11]
Meloidogyne incognita, also known as the southern root-nematode or cotton root-knot nematode is a plant-parasitic roundworm in the family Heteroderidae. This nematode is one of the four most common species worldwide and has numerous hosts. It typically incites large, usually irregular galls on roots as a result of parasitism.
Belonolaimus longicaudatus is a common parasite of grasses and other plant crops and products. It is the most destructive nematode pest of turf grass, and it also attacks a wide range of fruit, vegetable, and fiber crops such as citrus, cotton, ornamentals, and forage. The sting nematode is a migratory ectoparasite of roots. It is well established in many golf courses and presents a problem in turf management. The sting nematode is only present in very sandy soils. It cannot reproduce in heavier or clay soils.
Rotylenchulus reniformis, the reniform nematode, is a species of parasitic nematode of plants with a worldwide distribution in the tropical and subtropical regions.
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Helicotylenchus multicinctus is a plant pathogenic nematode that affects primarily bananas and plantains. Nematodes of the genus Helicotylenchus are spiral nematodes and feed on a large variety of plant species.
Hirschmanniella oryzae, i.e. rice root nematode (RRN), is among the major pests of rice and is the most common plant-parasitic nematode found on irrigated rice. Recent modifications in cultivation practices have led to a substantial increase in rice production, which has been accompanied by heightened levels of RRN. The proportional increases in RRN with rice production can be explained by the nematode's impeccable adaptation towards constantly flooded conditions in which irrigated rice is often being grown.
Paratylenchus hamatus, the fig pin nematode, is a species of migratory plant endoparasites, that causes lesions on plant roots resulting in symptoms of chlorosis, wilting and ultimately yield losses. They move and feed on different parts of host tissue throughout their life cycle in order to find enough susceptible host tissue to survive and reproduce. A wide range of host plant species are susceptible to the fig pin nematode, including many valuable fruit and vegetable crops such as figs, carrots and celery. They are also commonly found associated with woody perennials in California. P. hamatus inhabits soils in both Europe and North America, and was originally isolated from fig in central California in 1950.
Xiphinema americanum, the American dagger nematode, is a species of plant pathogenic nematodes. It is one of many species that belongs to the genus Xiphinema. It was first described by N. A. Cobb in 1913, who found it on both sides of the United States on the roots of grass, corn, and citrus trees. Not only is Xiphinema americanum known to vector plant viruses, but also X. americanum has been referred to as "the most destructive plant parasitic nematode in America", and one of the four major nematode pests in the Southeastern United States.
Tylenchulus semipenetrans, also known as the citrus nematode or citrus root nematode, is a species of plant pathogenic nematodes and the causal agent of slow decline of citrus. T. semipenetrans is found in most citrus production areas and diverse soil textures worldwide. Their feeding strategy is semi-endoparasitic and has a very narrow host range among commonly grown crops. These nematodes are considered as major plant-parasitic nematode because they can cause 10-30% losses reported on citrus trees. They also parasitize other hosts such as olive, grape, persimmon and lilac. The citrus nematode was first discovered in California in 1913 by J. R. Hodges, a horticultural inspector for Los Angeles County, and was later described and named by Nathan Cobb that year. T. semipenetrans is the only species of Tylenchulidae that are economically important to agriculture.
Aphelenchoides besseyi is a plant pathogenic nematode. It is sometimes referred to as rice white tip, spring dwarf, strawberry bud, flying strawberry nematode or strawberry crimp disease nematode. This foliar nematode is found in Africa, North, Central, and South America, Asia, Eastern Europe, and Pacific islands.
Mesocriconema xenoplax is a species of plant parasitic nematodes. Nematodes of this particular species are collectively called ring nematodes.
Anguina agrostis is a plant pathogenic nematode.
Heterodera sacchari, the sugarcane cyst nematode, mitotic parthenogenic sedentary endoparasitic nematode. This plant-parasitic nematode infects the roots of sugarcane, and the female nematode eventually becomes a thick-walled cyst filled with eggs. Aboveground symptoms are species specific and are similar to those caused by other Heterodera species. Symptoms include: stunted and chlorotic plants, and reduced root growth. Seedlings may be killed in heavily infested soils.
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The nematodes, roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but there are many that are parasitic. The parasitic worms (helminths) are the cause of soil-transmitted helminthiases.
Helicotylenchus is a genus of nematodes in the family Hoplolaimidae. They are known generally as spiral nematodes. They are found worldwide because they can live and survive in a wide range of habitats. They are among the most common parasitic nematodes of plants; found in corn, bananas, grass, soybeans.
Paracoccus marginatus, commonly known as the papaya mealybug, is a small sap-sucking insect in the mealybug family, Pseudococcidae. It is found on a number of different hosts, including economically important tropical fruit trees and various ornamental plants.
Hoplolaimus galeatus is a plant pathogenic nematode.
Heterodera zeae, the corn cyst nematode (CCN), is a plant parasitic nematode that feeds on Zea mays (maize/corn). The CCN has a limited economic impact worldwide due to its high soil temperature requirements.
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