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A heteronym (also known as a heterophone) is a word that has a different pronunciation and meaning from another word but the same spelling. These are homographs that are not homophones. Thus, lead (the metal) and lead (a leash) are heteronyms, but mean (average) and mean (intend) are not, since they are pronounced the same. Heteronym pronunciation may vary in vowel realisation, in stress pattern, or in other ways.
A heteronym is a homograph that is not a homophone, a word that has a different pronunciation and meaning from another word with the same spelling. Heteronym pronunciation may vary in vowel realisation, in stress pattern, or in other ways.
"Heterophone" literally just means "different sound", and this term is sometimes applied to words that are just pronounced differently, irrespective of their spelling. Such a definition would include virtually every pair of words in the language, so "heterophone" in this sense is normally restricted to instances where there is some particular reason to highlight the different sound. For example, puns normally involve homophones, but in the case of heterophonic (or imperfect) puns, the two words sound different, and yet similar enough for one to suggest the other (for example, mouth and mouse).
Most heteronyms are doubles. Triple heteronyms are extremely rare in English; three examples, sin, mobile and does, are listed below.
Proper nouns can sometimes be heteronyms. For example, the final syllable in the US state of Oregon is pronounced /-ən/ (or /-ɪn/ ), while in the name of the village of Oregon in Wisconsin, the final syllable is pronounced /-ɒn/ . Other examples include local pronunciations of Cairo, Georgia; Versailles, Kentucky; and Milan, Tennessee—compared to the more well-known Cairo, Versailles, and Milan—or the difference between the pronunciation of Louisville, Kentucky ( /ˈluːəvəl/ ) and the town of Louisville, New York ( /ˈluːɪsvɪl/ ).
There are also pairs which ignore case and include both initialisms and regular words, e.g., US and us.[ citation needed ]
Heteronyms also occur in non-alphabetic languages. For example, 20% of the 2400 most common Chinese characters have multiple readings; [1] [2] e.g., 行 can represent háng 'profession' or xíng 'OK'. In Arabic, vowels are normally not written, leading to ambiguous written words such as <كتب> /ktb/, which can be read /kataba/ 'he wrote', /kutubun/ 'books', or /kutiba/ 'it was written'; [3] it is unclear whether these should be considered heteronyms, since they are unambiguous when fully vocalized.
In some of these cases, American and British English pronunciations differ. One systematic case appears in the stress pattern of some deverbal nouns.
For a longer list, see wikt:Category:English heteronyms.
| Spelling | Pronunciation | Part of speech | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| abstract | /ˈæbstrækt/ | adjective | existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence |
| /æbˈstrækt/ | verb | consider (something) theoretically or separately from something else | |
| abuse | /əˈbjuːs/ | noun | improper treatment |
| /əˈbjuːz/ | verb | to use improperly | |
| address | AmE and BrE /əˈdrɛs/ | verb | to direct speech, a letter or a consignment (to) |
| AmE /ˈædrɛs/ BrE /əˈdrɛs/ | noun | a descriptor of location | |
| advocate | /ˈædvəkeɪt/ | verb | to argue for someone else |
| /ˈædvəkɪt/ | noun | a person who speaks in support of something | |
| affect | /əˈfɛkt/ | verb | to have an effect on |
| /ˈæfɛkt/ | noun | mood, emotional state | |
| affiliate | /əˈfɪliət/ | noun | a company, organization etc that is connected with or controlled by a larger one |
| /əˈfɪlieɪt/ | verb | if a group or organization affiliates to or with another larger one, it forms a close connection with it | |
| agape | /əˈɡeɪp/ | adverb | open wide |
| /ˈæɡəpiː/ , /əˈɡɑːpeɪ/ | noun | altruistic, beneficial love | |
| allied | /əˈlaɪd/ | verb | join for a common purpose (past tense) |
| /ˈælaɪd/ ; /æˈlaɪd/ | adjective | joined for a common purpose, especially by treaty | |
| alternate | /ˈɔːltərnət/ or /ɔːlˈtərnət/ | adjective | alternating, alternative |
| /ˈɔːltərneɪt/ | verb | to take turns | |
| alum | /ˈæləm/ | noun (or verb) | a type of astringent salt (or to chemically impregnate with that salt) |
| /əˈlʌm/ | noun | a past attendee or graduate (of either gender) of an educational institution | |
| analyses | /əˈnælɪsiːz/ | noun | plural of analysis |
| /ˈænəlaɪzɪz/ | verb | third person singular present of analyse | |
| appropriate | /əˈproʊpriət/ | adjective | suitable |
| /əˈproʊprieɪt/ | verb | to set apart for | |
| attribute | /ˈætrɪbjuːt/ | noun | a characteristic |
| /əˈtrɪbjuːt/ | verb | to associate ownership | |
| articulate | /ɑːrˈtɪkjʊleɪt/ | verb | to speak clearly |
| /ɑːrˈtɪkjʊlɪt/ | adjective | well-spoken | |
| august/August | /ɔːˈɡʌst,əˈ-/ | adjective | awe-inspiring, majestic, noble, venerable |
| /ˈɔː.ɡəst/ | noun | the eighth month of the Roman, Julian, and Gregorian calendars | |
| axes | /ˈæksiːz/ | noun | pl. of axis |
| /ˈæksɪz/ | noun | pl. of axe | |
| bases | /ˈbeɪsɪz/ | noun | plural of base |
| /ˈbeɪsiːz/ | noun | plural of basis | |
| bass | /ˈbeɪs/ | noun | low in pitch |
| /ˈbæs/ | noun | a fish | |
| blessed | /ˈblɛsɪd/ | adjective | having divine aid |
| /ˈblɛst/ | verb | past tense of bless | |
| bow | /ˈboʊ/ | noun | a stringed weapon, or the initiator of sound in some stringed musical instruments. |
| noun | an object that you clip or tie on to your hair to keep it from falling into your face | ||
| /ˈbaʊ/ | verb | to bend in respect | |
| noun | the front of a boat or ship | ||
| buffet | /bəˈfeɪ/ or /ˈbʊfeɪ/ | noun | sideboard meal |
| /ˈbʌfɪt/ | verb | to strike | |
| close | /ˈkloʊz/ | verb | to shut |
| /ˈkloʊs/ | adjective | nearby | |
| combine | /ˈkɒmbaɪn/ | noun | A farm machine that harvests and threshes |
| /kəmˈbaɪn/ | verb | To bring two or more things together, mix | |
| compact | /kəmˈpækt/ | verb | to compress |
| /ˈkɒmpækt/ | adjective | small | |
| complex | /ˈkɒmplɛks/ | noun | A collection of buildings with a common purpose, such as a university or military base |
| /kəmˈplɛks/ , /ˈkɒmplɛks/ | adjective | Made up of multiple parts | |
| compound | /ˈkɒmpaʊnd/ | noun | A substance having definite proportions of elements |
| /kəmˈpaʊnd/ | verb | To make a situation worse | |
| concert | /ˈkɒnsərt/ | noun | We saw the band in concert. |
| /kənˈsɜːrt/ | verb | We had to concert all our energy to stay awake. | |
| conduct | /ˈkɒndəkt/ | noun | action |
| /kənˈdʌkt/ | verb | to lead | |
| coop | /ˈkuːp/ | noun | enclosure for chickens |
| /ˈkoʊ.ɒp/ | noun | abbreviation of cooperative | |
| /kaʊp/ | noun | a cart with closed sides or ends, also spelled cowp. | |
| confines | /ˈkɒnfaɪnz/ | noun pl. | Work within the confines of the contract. |
| /kənˈfaɪnz/ | verb | But the contract confines my creativity! | |
| conflict | /ˈkɒnflɪkt/ | noun | The mother said to her belligerent son, "Violence is no way to resolve conflict!" |
| /kənˈflɪkt/ | verb | The two news reports seem to conflict with each other. | |
| console | /kənˈsoʊl/ | verb | provide comfort from grief |
| /ˈkɒnsoʊl/ | noun | control unit | |
| content | /ˈkɒntɪnt/ | noun | information |
| /kənˈtɛnt/ | adjective, verb | satisfied, satisfy | |
| contract | /ˈkɒntrækt/ | noun | The contract was supposed to expire seven years after it was signed. |
| /kənˈtrækt/ | verb | Derek firmly stated that he would rather contract pneumonia and die than stand outside wearing that ridiculous pink and green poncho. | |
| convict | /kənˈvɪkt/ | verb | to find guilty |
| /ˈkɒnvɪkt/ | noun | one convicted | |
| crooked | /ˈkrʊkt/ | verb | I crooked my arm to show the sleeve. |
| /ˈkrʊkɪd/ | adjective | Unfortunately, that just made the sleeve look crooked. | |
| decrease | /dɪˈkriːs/ | verb | To lessen |
| /ˈdiːkriːs/ | noun | A diminution | |
| defense | /dɪˈfɛns/ | noun | The attorney gave a strong defense. |
| /ˈdiːfɛns/ | noun | The coach put out his best defense. (dialectal, used in sports contexts) | |
| desert | /ˈdɛzərt/ | noun | an arid region |
| /dɪˈzɜːrt/ | verb | to abandon | |
| discard | /ˈdɪskɑːrd/ | noun | Toss it in the discard pile. |
| /dɪsˈkɑːrd/ | verb | But I don't want to discard it! | |
| do | /ˈduː/ , /də/ | verb | What do you think you are doing? |
| /ˈdoʊ/ | noun | To warm-up, the singer sang the scale from do. | |
| does | /ˈdoʊz/ | noun | pl. of doe |
| /ˈdʌz/ | verb | form of do | |
| /ˈduːz/ | noun | one spelling of the plural of do as a noun[ citation needed ] - e.g. hair does | |
| dogged | /ˈdɒɡd/ | verb | At night proctors patrolled the street and dogged your steps if you tried to go into any haunt where the presence of vice was suspected. (Samuel Butler, The Way of All Flesh) |
| /ˈdɒɡɪd/ | adjective | Still, the dogged obstinacy of his race held him to the pace he had set, and would hold him till he dropped in his tracks. (Jack London, The Son of the Wolf) | |
| dove | /ˈdʌv/ | noun | a bird |
| /ˈdoʊv/ | verb | Mainly American past tense of dive | |
| ellipses | /ɪˈlɪpsɪz/ | noun | Plural of ellipse |
| /ɪˈlɪpsiːz/ | noun | Plural of ellipsis | |
| entrance | /ˈɛntrəns/ | noun | way in |
| /ɛnˈtrænsˌɪn-ˈˌ-trɑːns/ | verb | to delight | |
| excuse | /ɪkˈskjuːs,ɛkˈ-/ | noun | explanation designed to avoid or alleviate guilt or negative judgment; a plea offered in extenuation of a fault |
| /ɪkˈskjuːz,ɛkˈ-/ | verb | to forgive; to pardon | |
| exploit | /ˈɛksplɔɪt/ | noun | a heroic or extraordinary deed |
| /ɛksˈplɔɪt/ | verb | to make use of or take advantage of | |
| house | /ˈhaʊs/ | noun | a residential building |
| /ˈhaʊz/ | verb | to place in residence | |
| incense | /ˈɪnsɛns/ | noun | Dad, I bought this incense at the temple. |
| /ɪnˈsɛns/ | verb | Big mistake. If you burn it here, you'll incense your mother. | |
| increase | /ɪnˈkriːs/ | verb | To get greater |
| /ˈɪnkriːs/ | noun | An augmentation | |
| intimate | /ˈɪntɪmeɪt/ | verb | to suggest |
| /ˈɪntɪmət/ | adjective | very close | |
| invalid | /ɪnˈvælɪd/ | adjective | incorrect |
| /ˈɪnvəlɪd/ | noun | a disabled person | |
| laminate | /ˈlæmɪneɪt/ | verb | to assemble from thin sheets glued together |
| /ˈlæmɪnət/ | noun | material formed of thin sheets glued together | |
| lead | /ˈliːd/ | verb | to guide |
| /ˈlɛd/ | noun | a metal | |
| learned | /ˈlɜːrnɪd/ | adjective | having much learning |
| /ˈlɜːrnd/ | verb | past tense of learn | |
| lima/Lima | /ˈlaɪmə/ | noun or attributive | A vegetable |
| proper noun | A city in Ohio, United States | ||
| /ˈliːmə/ | proper noun | The capital city of Peru | |
| live | /ˈlɪv/ | verb | to be alive |
| /ˈlaɪv/ | adjective | having life | |
| merchandise | /ˈmɜːrtʃəndaɪs/ | noun | goods available for sale |
| /ˈmɜːrtʃəndaɪz/ | verb | to make (something) available for sale | |
| minute | /maɪˈnjuːt/ | adjective | small |
| /ˈmɪnət/ | noun | unit of time | |
| mobile/Mobile | AmE /ˈmoʊbiːl/ , BrE /ˈmoʊbaɪl/ | noun | The baby sat in awe at the bright colors on the mobile. |
| AmE /ˈmoʊbəl/ , BrE /ˈmoʊbaɪl/ | adjective | Although most animals are mobile, the sponge is sessile. | |
| /moʊˈbiːl/ | proper noun | A city in Alabama | |
| moped | /ˈmoʊpɛd/ | noun | a small motorcycle |
| /ˈmoʊpt/ | verb | past tense of mope | |
| mow | /ˈmaʊ/ | noun | a stack of hay, or the part of a barn where hay is stored |
| /ˈmoʊ/ | verb | To cut something (especially grass or crops) down or knock down | |
| multiply | /ˈmʌltɪplaɪ/ | verb | to increase |
| /ˈmʌltɪpli/ | adverb | in multiple ways | |
| number | /ˈnʌmbər/ | noun | a numeral |
| /ˈnʌmər/ | adjective | more numb | |
| object | /ˈɒbdʒɪkt/ | noun | a thing |
| /əbˈdʒɛkt/ | verb | to protest | |
| overall | /oʊvərˈɔːl/ | adjective | Overall, we didn't do too badly. |
| /ˈoʊvərɔːl/ | noun | I need new overalls. | |
| periodic | /ˌpɪəriˈɒdɪk/ | adjective | Temperature shows periodic variation. |
| /pɜːrˈaɪɒdɪk/ | adjective | Periodic acid is an oxoacid of iodine. | |
| polish/Polish | /ˈpɒlɪʃ/ | verb | to shine |
| /ˈpoʊlɪʃ/ | adjective | of, from, or native to Poland | |
| present | /prɪˈzɛnt/ | verb | to reveal |
| /ˈprɛzənt/ | noun | a gift; the current moment | |
| adjective | existing in the immediate vicinity (e.g. Santa is present.) | ||
| primer | AmE /ˈprɪmər/ , BrE /ˈpraɪmər/ | noun | book that covers the basic elements of a subject |
| /ˈpraɪmər/ | noun | an undercoat of paint | |
| proceeds | /ˈproʊsiːdz/ | noun | revenue |
| /prəˈsiːdz/ | verb | Third person singular of the verb "proceed" | |
| produce | /proʊˈdjuːs/ | verb | to make |
| /ˈproʊdjuːs/ | noun | fruit and vegetables | |
| progress | /prəˈɡrɛs/ | verb | I hope things will progress faster. |
| AmE /ˈprɒɡrɛs/ , BrE /ˈproʊɡrɛs/ | noun | I haven't made any progress. | |
| project | /ˈprɒdʒɪkt/ | noun | an undertaking |
| /proʊˈdʒɛkt/ | verb | to cast an image | |
| protest | /ˈproʊtɛst/ | noun | an organized event opposing something |
| /proʊˈtɛst/ | verb | to vociferously object | |
| putting | /ˈpʊtɪŋ/ | verb | pr. part. of to put |
| /ˈpʌtɪŋ/ | verb | pr. part. of to putt | |
| ragged | /ˈræɡd/ | verb | She ragged on me about my ragged jeans. |
| /ˈræɡɪd/ | adjective | But my ragged jeans are my trademark, I responded. | |
| read | /ˈriːd/ | verb | present tense |
| /ˈrɛd/ | verb | past tense | |
| rebel | /rɪˈbɛl/ | verb | to resist |
| /ˈrɛbəl/ | noun | one who rebels | |
| record | AmE /ˈrɛkərd/ , BrE /ˈrɛkɔːrd/ | noun | stored information |
| /rɪˈkɔːrd/ | verb | to make a record | |
| recreate | /ˈrɛkrieɪt/ | verb | to relax by leisure activity |
| /ˌriːkriˈeɪt/ | verb | to give new life or create again (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: re-create) | |
| refund | /ˈriːfʌnd/ | noun | an amount of money that is given back to you if you are not satisfied with the goods or services that you have paid for |
| /rɪˈfʌnd/ | verb | to give someone their money back | |
| refuse | /ˈrɛfjuːs/ | noun | garbage |
| /rɪˈfjuːz/ | verb | to decline | |
| reject | /ˈriːdʒɛkt/ | noun | a product that has been rejected because there is something wrong with it |
| /rɪˈdʒɛkt/ | verb | to refuse to accept, believe in, or agree with something | |
| resign | /rɪˈzaɪn/ | verb | 1. to quit 2. to accept that something undesirable cannot be avoided |
| /riːˈsaɪn/ | verb | to sign again; re-sign | |
| resume | /rɪˈzjuːm/ | verb | to start again |
| /ˈrɛzjʊmeɪ/ | noun | curriculum vitae (sometimes distinguished with acute accents; résumé) | |
| retreat | /rɪˈtriːt/ | verb | to fall back from a battle front |
| /riːˈtriːt/ | verb | to treat again (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: re-treat) | |
| root | /ˈruːt/ or /ˈrʊt/ ) | noun | The tree's root was rotted. |
| /ˈruːt/ | verb | A pig can be trained to root for mushrooms. | |
| row | /ˈroʊ/ | noun, verb | a line; to paddle a boat |
| /ˈraʊ/ | noun | an argument | |
| sake | /ˈseɪk/ | noun | benefit |
| /ˈsɑːki/ | noun | rice wine | |
| second | /ˈsɛkənd/ | adjective, noun, verb | ordinal of "two", 1/60 of a minute, to endorse a motion |
| /səˈkɒnd/ | verb | to transfer temporarily to an alternative employment | |
| separate | /ˈsɛpərət/ | adjective | This should be divided into packets of ten cartridges each, which should be rolled up in flannel and hermetically sealed in separate tin canisters. (Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia) |
| /ˈsɛpəreɪt/ | verb | To stalk these wary antelopes I was obliged to separate from my party, who continued on their direct route. (Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia) | |
| sewer | /ˈsjuːər/ | noun | drainage pipes |
| /ˈsoʊ.ər/ | noun | one who sews | |
| shower | /ˈʃaʊ.ər/ | noun | precipitation |
| /ˈʃoʊ.ər/ | noun | one who shows | |
| sin/Sin | /ˈsɪn/ | noun | a moral error |
| /ˈsaɪn/ | noun | abbrev. for sine | |
| /ˈsiːn/ | noun | Sumerian god of the moon; Arabic letter | |
| slough | /ˈslʌf/ | verb | to shed |
| /ˈsluː/ | noun | a small waterway | |
| /ˈslaʊ/ | proper noun | a town in Berkshire | |
| sow | /ˈsoʊ/ | verb | to plant seeds |
| /ˈsaʊ/ | noun | a mature female in the swine species | |
| subject | /ˈsʌbdʒɪkt/ | noun | a topic |
| /səbˈdʒɛkt/ | verb | to cause to undergo | |
| supposed | /səˈpoʊz(ɪ)d/ | adjective | being assumed to be |
| /səˈpoʊst/ | verb | obliged to do | |
| /səˈpoʊzd/ | verb | past sense of suppose | |
| tarry | /ˈtæri/ | verb | to linger |
| /ˈtɑːri/ | adjective | similar to tar | |
| tear | /ˈtɪər/ | noun | liquid produced by crying |
| /ˈtɛər/ | verb, noun | to separate | |
| tier | /ˈtɪər/ | noun | level or rank |
| /ˈtaɪ.ər/ | noun | one who ties | |
| transfer | /ˈtrænsfər/ | noun | a movement of something from one place to another |
| /trænsˈfɜːr/ | verb | to move something from one place to another (the verb can be accented on either syllable) | |
| use | /ˈjuːs/ | noun | function, benefit |
| /ˈjuːz/ | verb | employ, utilize | |
| unionized | /ˈjuːniənaɪzd/ | adjective | formed into a union |
| /ʌnˈaɪənaɪzd/ | adjective | not ionized (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: un-ionized) | |
| whoop | /ˈhwʊp/ | verb | Pa says he's gonna whoop you good if you don't learn some manners! |
| /ˈhwuːp/ | verb | When they scored a goal, he began to whoop and holler. | |
| wicked | /ˈwɪkɪd/ | adjective | bad, evil |
| /ˈwɪkt/ | verb | past tense of wick (e.g. to wick away some liquid) | |
| wind | /ˈwɪnd/ | noun | air movement |
| /ˈwaɪnd/ | verb | to tighten a mechanical spring | |
| wound | /ˈwaʊnd/ | verb | past tense of wind (e.g. tightened a mechanical spring) |
| /ˈwuːnd/ | noun, verb | an injury |
In French, most heteronyms result from certain endings being pronounced differently in verbs and nouns. In particular, -ent as a third person plural verb ending is silent while as an adjective ending, it is pronounced IPA: [ɑ̃] .
| Spelling | Pronunciation | Part of speech | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| affluent | [afly] | verb | they pour in |
| [aflɥɑ̃] | noun | a tributary of a river | |
| as | [ɑ] | verb | you have |
| [ɑs] | noun | an ace | |
| bout | [bu] | noun | length |
| [but] | noun | rope (in nautical usage) | |
| content | [kɔ̃t] | verb | they recount |
| [kɔ̃tɑ̃] | adjective | happy | |
| convient | [kɔ̃vi] | verb | they invite |
| [kɔ̃vjɛ̃] | verb | it is suitable | |
| couvent | [kuv] | verb | they brood (eggs) |
| [kuvɑ̃] | noun | a convent | |
| éditions | [editjɔ̃] | verb | we edited |
| [edisjɔ̃] | noun | publications | |
| est | [ɛ] | verb | he/she is |
| [ɛst] | noun | the East | |
| excellent | [ɛksɛl] | verb | they excel |
| [ɛksɛlɑ̃] | adjective | excellent | |
| expédient | [ɛkspedi] | verb | they send |
| [ɛkspedjɑ̃] | noun | an expedient | |
| fier | [fje] | verb | to trust |
| [fjɛʁ] | adjective | proud | |
| fils | [fis] | noun | son, sons |
| [fil] | noun | wires | |
| négligent | [neɡliʒ] | verb | they neglect |
| [neɡliʒɑ̃] | adjective | negligent | |
| objections | [ɔbʒektjɔ̃] | verb | we objected |
| [ɔbʒeksjɔ̃] | noun | objections | |
| oignons | [waɲɔ̃] | verb | we anoint |
| [ɔɲɔ̃] | noun | onions [lower-alpha 1] | |
| parent | [paʁ] | verb | they adorn |
| [paʁɑ̃] | noun | parent | |
| plus | [plys] | adverb | more |
| [ply] | adverb | no more | |
| portions | [pɔʁtjɔ̃] | verb | we carried |
| [pɔʁsjɔ̃] | noun | portions | |
| relations | [ʁəlatjɔ̃] | verb | we recounted |
| [ʁəlɑsjɔ̃] | noun | relations | |
| résident | [ʁezid] | verb | they reside |
| [ʁezidɑ̃] | noun | resident | |
| violent | [vjɔl] | verb | they violate |
| [vjɔlɑ̃] | adjective | violent | |
| vis | [vi] | verb | I live, I saw (present) |
| [vis] | noun | screw, screws |
Modern Greek spelling is largely unambiguous, but there are a few cases where a word has distinct learned and vernacular meaning and pronunciation, despite having the same root, and where <ia> is pronounced /ja/ vs. /i.a/; [5] Some of these distinctions are being neutralized in modern speech. [6]
| Spelling | Pronunciation | Part of speech | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| άδεια | [ˈaðʝa] | adjective | empty |
| [ˈaði.a] | noun | leave, day off | |
| βεντέτα | [venˈdeta] | noun | vendetta |
| [veˈdeta] | noun | star (artist) | |
| βιάζω | [ˈvʝazo] | verb | I hasten |
| [viˈazo] | verb | I rape | |
| καμπάνα | [kamˈbana] | noun | bell |
| [kaˈbana] | noun | cabana | |
| λόγια | [ˈloʝa] | noun | words |
| [ˈloʝi.a] | adjective | learnèd |
Italian spelling is largely unambiguous, althouɡh there are some exceptions:
When stress is on the final, the vowel is written with an accent: mori 'mulberries' and morì 'he/she died'. Some monosyllabic words are also differentiated with an accent: e /e/ 'and' and è /ɛ/ 'he/she is'. These cases are not heteronyms.
Some common cases: [7]
| Spelling | Pronunciation | Part of speech | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| affetto | affètto | noun | affection |
| affétto | verb | I slice | |
| arena | arèna | noun | arena |
| aréna | noun | sand | |
| botte | bòtte | noun | blows, pounding |
| bótte | noun | barrel | |
| collega | collèga | noun | colleague |
| colléga | verb | he/she connects | |
| colto | còlto | ppl. | gathered |
| cólto | adjective | cultivated | |
| corresse | corrèsse | verb | he/she corrected (correggere) |
| corrésse | verb | he/she ran (subj.) (correre) | |
| corso | còrso | noun | a Corsican |
| córso | noun | a course | |
| córso | ppl. | run | |
| credo | crèdo | noun | creed |
| crédo | verb | I believe | |
| esca | èsca | verb | he/she exits |
| ésca | noun | bait | |
| esse | èsse | noun | the letter S |
| ésse | pron. | they (f.) | |
| foro | fòro | noun | forum, court |
| fóro | noun | a hole | |
| fosse | fòsse | noun | pits |
| fósse | verb | were (imperfect subj.) | |
| indotto | indòtto | adjective | ignorant |
| indótto | ppl. | induced | |
| legge | lègge | verb | he/she reads |
| légge | noun | law | |
| mento | mènto | verb | I lie |
| ménto | noun | chin | |
| meta | mèta | noun | destination, aim, score |
| méta | noun | haystack, dung | |
| messe | mèsse | noun | harvest |
| mésse | noun | religious mass | |
| pesca | pèsca | noun | peach |
| pésca | noun | fishing | |
| pésca | verb | he/she fishes | |
| peste | pèste | noun | plague |
| péste | adjective | crushed (f.pl.) | |
| péste | noun | footprints | |
| re | rè | noun | re (music) |
| ré | noun | king | |
| scopo | scòpo | noun | goal |
| scópo | verb | I sweep | |
| sorta | sòrta | noun | kind |
| sórta | verb | I rose | |
| tema | tèma | noun | theme, subject |
| téma | noun | fear | |
| torta | tòrta | adjective, ppl. | twisted (f. sing.) |
| tórta | noun | a torte | |
| venti | vènti | noun | winds |
| vénti | noun | twenty | |
| volgo | vòlgo | verb | I turn |
| vólgo | noun | the people | |
| volto | vòlto | ppl. | turned |
| vólto | noun | face |
| Spelling | Pronunciation | Part of speech | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| ancora | àncora | noun | anchor |
| ancòra | adverb | again | |
| ambito | àmbito | noun | ambit, scope |
| ambìto | ppl. | longed-for | |
| compito | cómpito | noun | task |
| compìto | ppl. | polite, completed | |
| cupido | cùpido | adjective | covetous |
| cupìdo | noun | Cupid | |
| nocciolo | nòcciolo | noun | kernel |
| nocciòlo | noun | hazelnut tree | |
| principi | prìncipi | noun | princes |
| princìpi | noun | principles | |
| retina | rètina | noun | retina |
| retìna | noun | small net | |
| seguito | sèguito | noun | sequel |
| seguìto | ppl. | followed | |
| Sofia | Sòfia | noun | Sofia (Bulgaria) |
| Sofìa | noun | Sofia (name) | |
| subito | subìto | ppl. | undergone |
| sùbito | adverb | immediately |
| Spelling | Pronunciation | Part of speech | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| razza | [ˈrattsa] | noun | race, breed |
| [ˈraddza] | noun | ray, skate (fish) |
Dutch has heteronyms which vary in stress position, known as klemtoonhomogramen 'stress homograms', such as appel : [ˈɑpəl] 'apple' vs. [ɑˈpɛl] 'appeal' (formerly written appèl). Other examples include beamen , bedelen , hockeyster , kantelen , misdadiger , overweg , verspringen , verwerpen .
The word plant is generally pronounced [plɑnt] , but may be pronounced [plɛnt] in the sense 'he/she plans'.
German has few heteronyms, for example: [8]
A diacritic is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω. The word diacritic is a noun, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas diacritical is only an adjective. Some diacritics, such as the acute ⟨á⟩, grave ⟨à⟩, and circumflex ⟨â⟩, are often called accents. Diacritics may appear above or below a letter or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.
English orthography is the writing system used to represent spoken English, allowing readers to connect the graphemes to sound and to meaning. It includes English's norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.
In linguistics, homonyms are words which are either homographs—words that have the same spelling —or homophones—words that have the same pronunciation —or both. Using this definition, the words row, row and row are homonyms because they are homographs : so are the words see (vision) and sea, because they are homophones.
A homograph is a word that shares the same written form as another word but has a different meaning. However, some dictionaries insist that the words must also be pronounced differently, while the Oxford English Dictionary says that the words should also be of "different origin". In this vein, The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography lists various types of homographs, including those in which the words are discriminated by being in a different word class, such as hit, the verb to strike, and hit, the noun a strike.
A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning. The two words may be spelled the same, for example rose (flower) and rose, or spelled differently, as in rain, reign, and rein. The term homophone sometimes applies to units longer or shorter than words, for example a phrase, letter, or groups of letters which are pronounced the same as a counterpart. Any unit with this property is said to be homophonous.
The acute accent, ◌́, is a diacritic used in many modern written languages with alphabets based on the Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek scripts. For the most commonly encountered uses of the accent in the Latin and Greek alphabets, precomposed characters are available.
The circumflex is a diacritic in the Latin and Greek scripts that is also used in the written forms of many languages and in various romanization and transcription schemes. It received its English name from Latin: circumflexus "bent around"—a translation of the Greek: περισπωμένη.
In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is the relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. That emphasis is typically caused by such properties as increased loudness and vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and changes in tone. The terms stress and accent are often used synonymously in that context but are sometimes distinguished. For example, when emphasis is produced through pitch alone, it is called pitch accent, and when produced through length alone, it is called quantitative accent. When caused by a combination of various intensified properties, it is called stress accent or dynamic accent; English uses what is called variable stress accent.
A phonemic orthography is an orthography in which the graphemes correspond to the language's phonemes. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on alphabetic writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is. English orthography, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic; it was once mostly phonemic during the Middle English stage, when the modern spellings originated, but spoken English changed rapidly while the orthography was much more stable, resulting in the modern nonphonemic situation. On the contrary the Albanian, Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin, Romanian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, Finnish, Czech, Latvian, Esperanto, Korean and Swahili orthographic systems come much closer to being consistent phonemic representations.
German orthography is the orthography used in writing the German language, which is largely phonemic. However, it shows many instances of spellings that are historic or analogous to other spellings rather than phonemic. The pronunciation of almost every word can be derived from its spelling once the spelling rules are known, but the opposite is not generally the case.
In French, liaison is the pronunciation of a linking consonant between two words in an appropriate phonetic and syntactic context. For example, the word les is pronounced, the word amis is pronounced, but the combination les amis is pronounced, with a linking.
In the phonology of the Romanian language, the phoneme inventory consists of seven vowels, two or four semivowels, and twenty consonants. In addition, as with other languages, other phonemes can occur occasionally in interjections or recent borrowings.
Stress is a prominent feature of the English language, both at the level of the word (lexical stress) and at the level of the phrase or sentence (prosodic stress). Absence of stress on a syllable, or on a word in some cases, is frequently associated in English with vowel reduction – many such syllables are pronounced with a centralized vowel (schwa) or with certain other vowels that are described as being "reduced". Various phonological analyses exist for these phenomena.
In an alphabetic writing system, a silent letter is a letter that, in a particular word, does not correspond to any sound in the word's pronunciation. In linguistics, a silent letter is often symbolised with a null sign U+2205∅EMPTY SET. Null is an unpronounced or unwritten segment. The symbol resembles the Scandinavian letter Ø and other symbols.
In English orthography, many words feature a silent ⟨e⟩, most commonly at the end of a word or morpheme. Typically it represents a vowel sound that was formerly pronounced, but became silent in late Middle English or Early Modern English.
The Portuguese language began to be used regularly in documents and poetry around the 12th century. Unlike neighboring Romance languages that adopted formal orthographies by the 18th century, the Portuguese language did not have a uniform spelling standard until the 20th century. The formation of the Portuguese Republic in 1911 was motivation for the establishment of orthographic reform in Portugal and its overseas territories and colonies. Brazil would adopt an orthographic standard based on, but not identical to, the Portuguese standard a few decades later.
The grave accent is a diacritical mark used to varying degrees in French, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian and many other western European languages as well as for a few unusual uses in English. It is also used in other languages using the Latin alphabet, such as Mohawk and Yoruba, and with non-Latin writing systems such as the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets and the Bopomofo or Zhuyin Fuhao semi-syllabary. It has no single meaning, but can indicate pitch, stress, or other features.
Portuguese orthography is based on the Latin alphabet and makes use of the acute accent, the circumflex accent, the grave accent, the tilde, and the cedilla to denote stress, vowel height, nasalization, and other sound changes. The diaeresis was abolished by the last Orthography Agreement. Accented letters and digraphs are not counted as separate characters for collation purposes.
Tzere is a Hebrew niqqud vowel sign represented by two horizontally-aligned dots "◌ֵ" underneath a letter. In modern Hebrew, tzere is pronounced the same as segol and indicates the phoneme /e/, which is the same as the "e" sound in the vowel segol and is transliterated as an "e". There was a distinction in Tiberian Hebrew between segol and Tzere.