Historically, Dagestan consisted of a federation of mountainous principalities in the eastern part of the North Caucasus. Located at the crossroads of world civilizations of north and south, Dagestan was the scene of clashes of interests of many states and until the early 19th century most notably that of between Persian Empire (Iran) and Imperial Russia.
The word Dagestan is of Turkish and Persian origin, directly translating to "Land of the Mountains." The Turkish word dağ means "mountain", and the Persian suffix -stan means "land". Some areas of Dagestan were known as Lekia, Avaria and Tarki at various times. The name Dagestan historically refers to the eastern Caucasus, taken by the Russian Empire in 1860 and renamed the Dagestan Oblast. The current, more autonomous Republic of Dagestan covers a much larger territory, established in 1921 as the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, by inclusion of the eastern part of Terek Oblast.
In the 6th century the Sassanid Empire after more than 100 years of war conquered the Eastern Caucasus, resulting in the entire region of Dagestan falling under the influence of Persia.
In 552, "Khazars" invaded North-Eastern Caucasus and occupied northern lowlands of Dagestan. Reigning Shah of Persia Khosrau I (531—579), to protect his possessions from the new wave of nomads, began the construction of defensive fortifications in Derbent, that closed a narrow passage between the Caspian Sea and Caucasian mountains. [1] Khosrau I owned fortress Gumik. [2] The modern name "Derbent" is a Persian word (دربند Darband) meaning "gateway", which came into use in this same era, in the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century CE, when the city was re-established by Kavadh I of the Sassanid dynasty of Persia.
Ancient Iranian language elements were absorbed into the everyday speech of the population of Dagestan and the city of Derbent, especially during the Sassanian era, and many remain extant. [3] A policy of "Persianizing" Derbent and the eastern Caucasus in general can be traced over many centuries, from Khosrow I to the Safavid shahs Ismail I, and Abbās the Great. [3] According to the account in the later "Darband-nāma," after construction of the fortifications Khosrow I "moved much folk here from Persia," [4] relocating about 3,000 families from the interior of Persia to Derbent and neighboring villages. [3] This account seems to be corroborated by the Spanish Arab Ḥamīd Moḥammad Ḡarnāṭī, who reported in 1130 that Derbent was populated by many ethnic groups, including a large Persian-speaking population. [5]
Southern Dagestan passed from Iranian to Arab rule following the Muslim conquest of Persia. This period is known by a 150 years of war that peoples of the northeastern Caucasus region fought between Arabs and Khazars. In 643, during the reign of caliph Umar ibn Khattab, Arab armies led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi captured Derbent and the neighboring territories. In 652 Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi was killed during the siege of Khazar city of Balanjar. [6] [7] In 662 the Khazars invaded Dagestan. In 698 Muhammad ibn Marwan, brother of caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, captured Derbent. [8] In 705 Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik, brother of caliph Al-Walid I, once again took over Derbent.
In 722, caliph Yazid II sent warlord al-Djarrah al-Hakami to defend the fortress of Derbent. Historian Al-Tabari recounts the campaigns of al-Djarrah thus: "Arabs defeating Khazars in southern Dagestan moved to the mountains of Dagestan, overcame the resistance of the people of Khamzin and Gumik, and in punitive expeditions ransacked Kaitag and Tabasaran for refusal to accept their authority."
Historian Balami writes that in 723 the warlord al-Djarrah "called one of his close commanders, gave him three thousand warriors and said to him, "Go to Kaitag, destroy there everything that you will meet on your way, fight everyone who will show you resistance and come back to me before the sunrise." [9] In 723, Arab forces under the command of al-Djarrah moved through the territory of Dagestan and captured Balanjar. In 730 al-Djarrah was killed in the battle of Marj Ardabil. [10]
In 730–731, Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik, brother of caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, "fortified Derbent in the best possible way" by building seven iron gates, "and marched with his army to Kumukh". [11] [12] In 732, Marwan Ibn Muhammad, cousin of caliph Hisham, overcame powerful fortresses of mountainous Dagestan, forcing them to pay tribute. Ibn Hayyat, Iranian author of the ninth century, says that after the capture of "Gumik" and "Khunzakh," Marwan "went away from there, and entered the land of Tumen." [13] According to Al-Balazuri, Marwan led an army of 120,000 into Khazar possessions. [14] The Khazar army endured a series of defeats. Marwan captured the city of Samandar. [15] In 797 the Khazars carried out an invasion of Dagestan. [16]
The Mongols raided the lands in 1221-1222 then conquered Derbent and the surrounding area from 1236 to 1239 during the invasions of Georgia and Durdzuketia.
In the early 16th century the Persians (under the Safavids) consolidated their rule over the region, which would last intermittently until the early 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries, legal traditions were codified and mountainous communities (djamaats) obtained a considerable degree of autonomy, while the Kumyk potentates ( shamhals ) asked for the Tsar's protection following the Russo-Persian War (1651–53) despite a Russian loss. The Russians tightened their hold in the region in the 18th century, when Peter the Great took maritime Dagestan in the course of the Russo-Persian War (1722–23) – although the territories were returned to Persia in 1735 per the Treaty of Ganja.
The 18th century also saw the resurgence of the Khanate of Avaristan, which even managed to repulse the attacks of Nadir Shah of Persia at a certain point during his Dagestan campaign and impose tribute on Shirvan and Georgia. From 1747 on, the Persian-ruled part of Dagestan was administered through the Derbent Khanate, with its centre at Derbent. The Persian Expedition of 1796 resulted in the Russian capture of Derbent. However, the Russians were later forced to retreat from the entire Caucasus due to domestic governmental problems, enabling Persia/Iran to recapture the territory.
In 1806 the khanate fell under Russian control, but it was not until the aftermath of the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) that Russian power over Dagestan was confirmed when Persia formally ceded the territory to Russia. In 1813, following Russia's victory in the war, Qajar Persia was forced to cede southern Dagestan with Derbent, along withother territories in the Caucasus, to Russia under the Treaty of Gulistan. [19] The 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay indefinitely consolidated Russian control over Dagestan and removed Persia/Iran from the regional military equation. [20]
Imperial Russian administration disappointed and embittered the people of Dagestan. Heavy taxation, coupled with the expropriation of estates and the construction of fortresses (including Makhachkala), spurred highlanders into rising under the aegis of the Muslim Imamate of Dagestan, led by Ghazi Mohammed (1828–32), Gamzat-bek (1832–34) and Shamil (1834–59). This Caucasian War raged until 1864, when Shamil was captured and the Khanate of Avaristan was abolished.
Dagestan and Chechnya took advantage of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) to rise against Imperial Russia. On 21 December 1917 Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan declared independence from Russia and formed a single state titled the "United Mountain Dwellers of the North Caucasus," also known as the "Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus." The capital of this self-proclaimed country was moved to Temir-Khan-Shura, Dagestan. [21] [22] [23] The first prime minister was Tapa Chermoyev, a Chechen politician; the second prime minister was an Ingush politician Vassan-Girey Dzhabagiev, who also was the author of the constitution of the land in 1917. In 1920 he was reelected for the third term.
Following the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1917, Ottoman armies occupied Azerbaijan and Dagestan and the region became part of the short-lived Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus. After more than three years of fighting in the Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks (Communists) achieved victory and the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on January 20, 1921. Nevertheless, Joseph Stalin's industrialization largely bypassed Dagestan and the economy stagnated, making the republic the poorest region in Soviet Russia.[ citation needed ]
In 1999, an Islamist group from Chechnya, led by Shamil Basayev and Ibn Al-Khattab, launched a military invasion of Dagestan, with the aim of creating an "independent Islamic State of Dagestan". The invaders were driven back to Chechnya by the Russian military. In retaliation, Russian forces reinvaded Chechnya later that year.[ citation needed ] Dagestan underwent a rise in Islamic militancy in the early 2000s. [24] Violence in the Republic occurred in 2010–2012.[ citation needed ] This upsurge led some people to fear that Dagestan was about to enter into a sectarian civil war. Dagestan became the epicenter of violence in the North Caucasus with Makhachkala, Kaspiisk, Derbent, Khasavyurt, Kizlyar, Sergokala, Untsukul, and Tsumada all becoming hotbeds of militant unrest.[ citation needed ]
In 2023, during the Hamas-Israel war, there were a wave of antisemitic attacks across the North Caucasus, including Dagestan. [25] [26]
Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, commonly known as Yazid II, was the ninth Umayyad caliph, ruling from 720 until his death in 724. Although he lacked administrative or military experience, he derived prestige from his lineage, being a descendant of both ruling branches of the Umayyad dynasty, the Sufyanids who founded the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 and the Marwanids who succeeded them in 684. He was designated by his half-brother, Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, as second-in-line to the succession after their cousin Umar, as a compromise with the sons of Abd al-Malik.
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was the tenth Umayyad caliph, ruling from 724 until his death in 743.
Derbent, formerly romanized as Derbend, is a city in Dagestan, Russia, located on the Caspian Sea. It is the southernmost city in Russia, and it is the second-most important city of Dagestan. Derbent occupies the narrow gateway between the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus Mountains connecting the Eurasian Steppe to the north and the Iranian Plateau to the south; covering an area of 69.63 square kilometres (26.88 sq mi), with a population of roughly 120,000 residents.
Dagestan, officially the Republic of Dagestan, is a republic of Russia situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe, along the Caspian Sea. It is located north of the Greater Caucasus, and is a part of the North Caucasian Federal District. The republic is the southernmost tip of Russia, sharing land borders with the countries of Azerbaijan and Georgia to the south and southwest, the Russian republics of Chechnya and Kalmykia to the west and north, and with Stavropol Krai to the northwest. Makhachkala is the republic's capital and largest city; other major cities are Derbent, Kizlyar, Izberbash, Kaspiysk, and Buynaksk.
Ostikan was the title used by Armenians for the governors of the early Caliphates. In modern historiography, it is chiefly used for the caliphal governors of the province of Arminiya, which included Greater Armenia.
Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik was an Umayyad prince and one of the most prominent Arab generals of the early decades of the 8th century, leading several campaigns against the Byzantine Empire and the Khazar Khaganate. He achieved great fame especially for leading the second and last Arab siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople.
Abu Uqba al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami was an Arab nobleman and general of the Hakami tribe. During the course of the early 8th century, he was at various times governor of Basra, Sistan and Khurasan, Armenia and Adharbayjan. A legendary warrior already during his lifetime, he is best known for his campaigns against the Khazars on the Caucasus front, culminating in his death in the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730.
Shamkhal, or Shawhal is the title for the rulers of Kumyk people in Dagestan and North-East Caucasus during the 8th-19th centuries. By the 16th Century, the state had its capital at Tarki and was thus known as the Shankhalate of Tarki.
The Battle of Balanjar took place during the First Khazar-Arab War between the armies of the Khazar Khaganate and the Caliphate, whose commanding general was Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah.
Sarir or Serir was a medieval Christian state lasting from the 6th or 7th century to the 12th century in the mountainous regions of modern-day Dagestan in southern Russia. Its name is derived from the Arabic word for "throne" and refers to a golden throne that was viewed as a symbol of royal authority.
The Arab–Khazar wars were a series of conflicts fought between the Khazar Khaganate and successive Arab caliphates in the Caucasus region from c. 642 to 799 CE. Smaller native principalities were also involved in the conflict as vassals of the two empires. Historians usually distinguish two major periods of conflict, the First Arab–Khazar War and Second Arab–Khazar War ; the wars also involved sporadic raids and isolated clashes from the mid-seventh century to the end of the eighth century.
The Russian conquest of the Caucasus mainly occurred between 1800 and 1864. The Russian Empire sought to control the region between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. South of the mountains was the territory that is modern Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Iran and Turkey. North of the mountains was the North Caucasus region of modern Russia. The difficult conquest of the intervening mountains is known as the Caucasian War. Multiple wars were fought against the local rulers of the regions, as well as the dominant powers, the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran, for control. By 1864 the last regions were brought under Russian control.
Lakia is an ancient ethnic region within the state of Dagestan. Its historical capital is Kumukh, one of the ancient cultural and religious centres of Lakia. The people of Lakia are self-designated as Laks and their native language is Lak.
"Gazikumukh Shamkhalate" is a term introduced in Russian-Dagestan historiography starting from the 1950s–60s to denote the Kumyk state that existed on the territory of present-day Dagestan in the period of the 8th to 17th centuries with the capital in Gazi-Kumukh, and allegedly disintegrated in 1642. However, In the 16th century's Russian archival sources Tarki is stated to be the "capital of Shamkhalate" and "the city of Shamkhal", while "Kazi-Kumuk" is mentioned as a residence. These facts contradict "1642 disintegration" date. Moreover, there is absolutely no source before the 1950s containing the term "Gazikumukh Shamkhalate" or a statement that Gazi-Kumukh had ever been the capital of Shamkhalate. Historically, Shamkhalate is widely described as Tarki Shamkhalate or just Shamkhalate.
The Shamkhalate of Tarki, or Tarki Shamkhalate was a Kumyk state in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, with its capital in the ancient town of Tarki. It formed on the territory populated by Kumyks and included territories corresponding to modern Dagestan and adjacent regions. After subjugation by the Russian Empire, the Shamkhalate's lands were split between the Empire's feudal domain with the same name extending from the river Sulak to the southern borders of Dagestan, between Kumyk possessions of the Russian Empire and other administrative units.
Lakia, Lakistan the later name of the ethnic territory of the Laks in the central part of mountainous Dagestan, which is historically known as Gumik or Tuman. Kumukh is the main historical, cultural, spiritual and political center of Lakia that consists of Lakskiy and Kulinskiy districts.
The Derbent Khanate was a Caucasian khanate that was established in Afsharid Iran. It corresponded to southern Dagestan and its center was at Derbent.
Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi was a prominent Arab general and governor of the Umayyad Caliphate, who played an important role in the Arab–Khazar wars.
Emirate of Derbent was a medieval state that arose on the Caspian trade route with its center in the city of Derbent. The latter occupied a key position among trade centers in the Caspian region. It was ruled by the Hashimid dynasty, descendants of a freedman from the Banu Sulaym tribe.
In the history of Azerbaijan, the Early Middle Ages lasted from the 3rd to the 11th century. This period in the territories of today's Azerbaijan Republic began with the incorporation of these territories into the Sasanian Persian Empire in the 3rd century AD. Feudalism took shape in Azerbaijan in the Early Middle Ages. The territories of Caucasian Albania became an arena of wars between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire. After the Sassanid Empire was felled by the Arab Caliphate, Albania also weakened and was overthrown in 705 AD by the Abbasid Caliphate under the name of Arran. As the control of the Arab Caliphate over the Caucasus region weakened, independent states began to emerge in the territory of Azerbaijan.