Human trafficking in Cuba

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Cuba is principally a source country for children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically commercial sexual exploitation within the country. The scope of trafficking within Cuba is difficult to gauge due to the closed nature of the government and sparse non-governmental or independent reporting. [1] [2]

Contents

The Government of Cuba does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so. In a positive step, the Government of Cuba shared information about human trafficking and its efforts to address the issue. However, the government did not prohibit all forms of trafficking during the reporting period, nor did it provide specific evidence that it prosecuted and punished trafficking offenders, protected victims of all forms of trafficking, or implemented victim protection policies or programs to prevent human trafficking. [1] The U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2 Watchlist" in 2017. [3] [4]

In 2019, Cuba was downgraded to Tier 3 since it did not comply with the minimum standards and made no significant efforts to do so, and remained in Tier 3 in 2020. [2]

Cuba, in 2021, resides as a Tier 3 country in terms of human trafficking. Throughout Cuban history the main types of human trafficking are through sexual and domestic exploitation, as well as forced labor. Women and girls are typically the major victims of these infractions since they are more likely to experience gender inequality, discrimination, and consequences on their physical and emotional well-being.

Government of Cuba

The Government of Cuba did not report discernible progress on prosecuting trafficking offenders during the reporting period. Cuba appears to prohibit most forms of trafficking activity through various provisions of its penal code, but the usage of these provisions could not be verified. Title III, Section 1, Article 310 provides that using children under 16 in prostitution, corruption, pornographic acts, or other illegal conduct may be punishable by from seven to 30 years’ imprisonment or death. Prostitution of children over the age of 16 is legal. Article 316, on the selling of children, bans internal and transnational trafficking in children under the age of 16 for forced labor, prostitution, trade in organs, and pornography, and prescribes penalties of between four and 20 years’ imprisonment. Articles 302 and 87 prohibit inducing an adult into prostitution, and prescribe penalties of up to 20 years’ imprisonment. All these penalties are sufficiently stringent, and commensurate with those prescribed for other serious crimes, such as rape. [5] [6] The government did not share official data relating to Cuban investigations, prosecutions, and convictions of trafficking offenders in 2009 or any other year. Reports continued of individual police officers profiting from the commercial sex trade, though the practice is officially discouraged. No investigations or prosecutions of public officials have been confirmed. The government did not report any anti-trafficking training provided to officials. However, UNICEF reported that police and workers in the tourist industry received this kind of training. The government also participated in UNICEF sponsored regional programs aimed at combating trafficking.

Protection

The government did not provide substantive evidence of protection of trafficking victims during the reporting period. The government restricted the ability of international and domestic NGOs to operate in Cuba. In partnership with one NGO and another government, Cuba continued to fund the operation of two centers treating sexually abused children, but the government did not provide information about who received treatment in these centers. The government also provided funding for women's shelters where victims could access care, though the government did not provide information about who received treatment at the shelters. According to UNICEF, both the centers for children and the women's shelters are used by trafficking victims, and the staff is trained specifically on how to identify and treat trafficking victims. [6] [5] The government did not report that police and other officials employed procedures to proactively identify trafficking victims, such as people in prostitution, and guide them to services, but a UNICEF representative indicated that the police receive specific training on identifying trafficking victims and information about how to refer them to available services. The government provided no evidence that it encouraged trafficking victims to assist in the investigation and prosecution of trafficking offenders. [1] [7] [8]

Prevention

To date the government has made limited efforts in anti-trafficking prevention efforts. The government generally did not discuss publicly human trafficking issues. The government did not implement any known public awareness campaigns to prevent forced labor or forced prostitution. The government did not report the existence of an anti-trafficking task force, monitoring mechanism, or action plan. [4] However, the National Action Plan for Children and Adolescents sets specific goals and provides implementation guidance on protecting the rights of children and preventing child labor, prostitution, and trafficking. During the reporting period, the official press produced several articles on Cuban citizens who reportedly were subjected to forced labor and forced prostitution in Mexico while awaiting passage to the United States. The government made no known efforts to reduce the demand for commercial sex. [8] [5] The government denied it had a child sex tourism problem but it banned children under 16 from nightclubs, and according to Cuban government documents, the government provided training to hotel workers and others in the tourism industry on how to identify and report potential sex tourists. Cuba is not a party to the 2000 UN TIP Protocol. [1]

In February 2017, the government published the national anti-trafficking plan for 2017-2020. [4]

The government and the Federation of Cuban Women (FMC) continued to operate the implemented 24-hour telephone help line from 2018. To which none of the reported 19,192 calls were related to trafficking in persons. [6]

Conquest and Colony Stage of Human Trafficking in Cuba

In Cuba in 1847, indentured Chinese laborers began arriving in Cuba. Because of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act put into place in the United States, and an additional 5,000 Chinese emigrated from the U.S. in order to avoid it. These were mostly single men, who made a very difficult journey to Cuba in order to find work in the agriculture sector. They stayed in the countryside for eight years and then returned to Havana and formed a Chinese community. In 1872, the estimation is that there were 58,000 men and 32 women of Chinese descent in Cuba. This migration of Chinese people involved slavery-like conditions, particularly for women. “One such advertisement indicated the sale of a ‘Chinese woman of twenty one years’ and another announced the sale of ‘a Chinese girl.’” A Havana based newspaper also included an advertisement which read: “For sale: A Chinese girl with two daughters, one of 12–13 years [of age] and the other of 5–6, useful for whatever you may desire. Also one mule.” This trafficking of Chinese girls was apparent in many periods of Cuban history but was not found or recorded in official records. [9]

Postwar Period and Republic Stage of Human Trafficking in Cuba

Following Spanish withdrawal from Cuba in 1898, Cuba formally became an independent republic in 1902. In this stage of time in Cuban history, in an attempt to exploit them sexually, organized crime networks in this period brought foreign women to Cuba. Prostitutes were exploited by both police as well as pimps who were often also involved in sale of illicit drugs, burglaries, and petty thefts.

Revolutionary stage of Human Trafficking in Cuba

January 1, 1959 marks the day that the Cuban Revolution was successful. This is when the country then began to look at social, economic, and cultural problems which threatened the freedom of their nation and tried to improve them. After the revolution, there was a movement to shift away from sexually exploiting women through prostitution as the society had in the past.

Prostitution and pimping in this time period became more publicly talked about, and the general worry regarding it caused a need for it to be addressed. They wanted to eliminate prostitution and the criminal activities that appeared to follow it. In Decree Law 175 of June 1997, attempts at regulating prostitution and pimping were put into place.

They attempted to close brothels, and provide opportunities to this woman for child care, jobs, and healthcare. Despite this, women continued to participate in prostitution with the aim of bettering their lives financially. Threats, violence from pimps, and connection to organized crime contributed to these women being in a category which left them more vulnerable to trafficking and sexual exploitation. Their socioeconomic situations, the fact that they believed the activity came with little risk, and the hidden nature of the crime that was actually involved, left them vulnerable. They believed participating in prostitution in Cuba gave them a chance at marrying someone foreign, being able to leave Cuba, and of economic success. Those that accomplished this goal, or aimed towards it, did not necessarily end up being victims of trafficking but their chances of exploitation by deception from foreigners increased significantly.

Current State of Human Trafficking in Cuba

In the current state of human trafficking in Cuba, the United States government has been discussing legislation regarding the human trafficking of Cuban baseball players who legally aren't allowed to move into the US. They decide, with hope of great compensation in Major League Baseball, to risk making deals with smugglers and those involved in organized crime to hopefully find a way to enter the United States. The result of the policies enacted fail to adequately address the problem of human trafficking - the financial benefit to those Cuban players who sign free agent contracts within MLB provide enough incentive that they'll willingly put themselves in risky situations to try and defect Cuba and enter the United States. Those involved in Major League Baseball in the United States are aware of the situations Cuban players must undergo to reach American soil and potential recruitment to MLB, but choose to overlook it in order to still acquire the talent to their teams that Cuban baseball players provide. Joe Kehoskie is an American baseball consultant and a former agent. He describes this system as being as easy and simple as purchasing items through Amazon (company) or eBay. Essentially, he describes it as purchasing items at a “buy-it-now price, and you're buying human beings.” [10]

However, Cuban players recruited from other countries are legally allowed, in the agreement made between Cuba and the United States, to be recruited by MLB clubs. Therefore, many players essentially risk being smuggled into these other countries in order to participate in MLB auditions. This process forces the players and their families to solely rely on criminal organizations and smugglers to provide them with this passage out of Cuba. This can often lead to trouble and in some cases, players with high skill levels can be wanted by groups engaged in alien-trafficking rings in order for them to profit off the players when they start making money in MLB. One example of this is the story of Yasiel Puig and how he defected from Cuba in 2012. He willingly left Cuba with the help of a murderous Mexican drug cartel. While awaiting further transfer, he wasn't allowed to leave and waited on Isla Mujeres. Some of those involved in an alien-trafficking ring found out that such a skilled player was being held there and planned to “steal” Puig from this holding location. He was then brought to Mexico City, to be recruited by MLB scouts. This resulted in those who kidnapped him forcing profit off of his MLB contract, as well as those who originally brought him out of Cuba never receiving payment for their work. [10]

Additionally, situations of trafficking and human exploitation in Cuba are not only happening near those involved in professional baseball. The Cuban Government itself is the primary employer of the Cuban economy. They employ some people through foreign medical and overseas missions  and happen to employ more than 84,000 workers in other countries as of 2018. In some cases, if these Cuban natives want to return home, they force them to stay in and participate in the program by withholding their passports, restricting their movement, and taking backlash out on their family members who are residing back in Cuba. The living and working conditions in these countries can also often be substandard. In some situations, if those people working in these programs don't return to Cuba as directed, they can be exiled from the country altogether. [4]

Cuba's medical enterprise in Brazil was managed by the Pan American Health Organization. Four Cuban doctors working in Brazil sued PAHO under the Trafficking Victims Protection Act and Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act in Matos v. PAHO. These doctors were participants in the Mais Medicos program. This program was operated from 2013 to 2017 by the Brazilian government cooperatively with the Cuban government. This organization enforced the rules that Cuba was enacting, including restricting the doctor's movement and allowing them to be put under surveillance by Cuban intelligence. Brazil paid $1.5 billion to PAHO, who then paid Cuba $1.3 billion. The organization pocketed $75 million and the doctors received less than 10%. [11] Brazilian law forbids unequal treatment of foreign workers so many Cuban doctors, upon hearing that they were making less than 10% of what other doctors in Brazil were making, were able to successfully win these lawsuits. [12]

See also

Related Research Articles

Efforts to crack down on human trafficking in Russia focus not only on the men, women, and children who are illegally shipped out of Russia to undergo forced labor and sexual exploitation in other countries, but also those who are illegally brought into Russia from abroad. The Government of the Russian Federation has made significant progress in this area over the past decade, but a report commissioned by the United States Department of State in 2010 concluded that much more needed to be done before Russia could be taken off its Tier 3 watchlist. U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 3" in 2017.

Vietnam is primarily a source country for women and children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women and children are trafficked to the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C), Cambodia, Thailand, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Macau for sexual exploitation. Vietnamese women are trafficked to the P.R.C., Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea via fraudulent or misrepresented marriages for commercial exploitation or forced labor. Vietnam is also a source country for men and women who migrate willingly and legally for work in the construction, fishing, or manufacturing sectors in Malaysia, Taiwan, P.R.C., Thailand, and the Middle East but subsequently face conditions of forced labor or debt bondage. Vietnam is a destination country for Cambodian children trafficked to urban centers for forced labor or commercial sexual exploitation. Vietnam has an internal trafficking problem with women and children from rural areas trafficked to urban centers for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Vietnam is increasingly a destination for child sex tourism, with perpetrators from Japan, the Republic of Korea, the P.R.C., Taiwan, the UK, Australia, Europe, and the U.S. In 2007, an Australian non-governmental organization (NGO) uncovered 80 cases of commercial sexual exploitation of children by foreign tourists in the Sa Pa tourist area of Vietnam alone.

Kuwait is a destination and transit country for men and women for forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Men and women migrate willingly from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Indonesia, and the Philippines to work as domestic servants or low-skilled laborers. Upon arrival, however, some are subsequently subjected to conditions of forced labor, such as restrictions on movement, unlawful withholding of passports, non-payment of wages, threats, and physical or sexual abuse. In addition, some women are forced into commercial sexual exploitation; for example, some female domestic workers are forced into prostitution after running away from abusive employers or after being deceived with promises of jobs in different sectors. Kuwait is also a transit country for South and East Asian workers recruited by Kuwaiti labor recruitment agencies for low-skilled work in Iraq; some of these workers are deceived as to the true location and nature of this work, while others willingly transit to Iraq through Kuwait, but subsequently endure conditions of involuntary servitude in Iraq. Some Kuwaiti nationals reportedly travel to destinations including Morocco, Egypt, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh to engage in commercial sex acts.

Afghanistan is one of the source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Trafficking within Afghanistan is more prevalent than transnational trafficking, and the majority of victims are children. In 2005 the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) reported 150 child trafficking cases to other states. Afghan boys and girls are trafficked within the country and into Iran, Pakistan and India as well as Persian gulf Arab states, where they live as slaves and are forced to prostitution and forced labor in brick kilns, carpet-making factories, and domestic service. In some cases the boys and girls were used for organ trafficking. Forced begging is a growing problem in Afghanistan; Mafia groups organize professional begging rings. Afghan boys are subjected to forced prostitution and forced labor in the drug smuggling industry in Pakistan and Iran. Afghan women and girls are subjected to forced prostitution, arranged and forced marriages—including those in which husbands force their wives into prostitution—and involuntary domestic servitude in Pakistan and Iran, and possibly India. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) report that over the past year, increasing numbers of boys were trafficked internally. Some families knowingly sell their children for forced prostitution, including for bacha bazi - a practice combining sexual slavery and child prostitution, through which wealthy men use harems of young boys for social and sexual entertainment. Other families send their children with brokers to gain employment. Many of these children end up in forced labor, particularly in Pakistani carpet factories. NGOs indicate that families sometimes make cost-benefit analyses regarding how much debt they can incur based on their tradable family members.

Algeria is a transit and, to a lesser extent, destination country for men and women subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Most commonly, sub-Saharan African men and women enter Algeria voluntarily but illegally, often with the assistance of smugglers, for the purpose of traveling to Europe. Some become victims of trafficking: men may be forced into unskilled labor and women into prostitution to repay smuggling debts. Criminal networks of sub-Saharan nationals in southern Algeria facilitate this irregular migration by arranging transportation, forged documents, and promises of employment. Reliable statistics on the number of potential victims are not available from the government or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). One NGO estimates that the populations most vulnerable to trafficking include between 10,000 and 15,000 illegal sub-Saharan African migrants.

Belgium is a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Victims originate in Eastern Europe, Africa, East Asia, as well as Brazil and India. Some victims are smuggled through Belgium to other European countries, where they are subjected to forced labor and forced prostitution. Male victims are subjected to forced labor and exploitation in restaurants, bars, sweatshops, horticulture sites, fruit farms, construction sites, and retail shops. There were reportedly seven Belgian women subjected to forced prostitution in Luxembourg in 2009. According to a 2009 ECPAT Report, the majority of girls and children subjected to forced prostitution in Belgium originate from Balkan and CIS countries, Eastern Europe, Asia and West Africa ; some young foreign boys are exploited in prostitution in major cities in the country. Local observers also report that a large portion of children trafficked in Belgium are unaccompanied, vulnerable asylum seekers and refugees. Criminal organizations from Thailand use Thai massage parlors in Belgium, which are run by Belgian managers, to sexually exploit young Thai women. These networks are involved in human smuggling and trafficking to exploit victims economically and sexually. Belgium is not only a destination country, but also a transit country for children to be transported to other European country destinations.

Botswana is a source and destination country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Parents in poor rural communities sometimes send their children to work for wealthier families as domestics in cities or as herders at remote cattle posts, where some of these children are vulnerable to forced labor. Batswana girls are exploited in prostitution within the country, including in bars and by truck drivers along major highways; it does not appear, however, that organized pimping of children occurs. In the past, women reported being forced into commercial sexual exploitation at some safari lodges, but there were no similar reports during this reporting period. Residents in Botswana most susceptible to trafficking are illegal immigrants from Zimbabwe, unemployed men and women, those living in rural poverty, agricultural workers, and children orphaned by HIV/AIDS. Some women from Zimbabwe who voluntarily, but illegally, migrate to Botswana to seek employment are subsequently subjected by their employers to involuntary domestic servitude. Botswana families which employ Zimbabwean women as domestic workers at times do so without proper work permits, do not pay adequate wages, and restrict or control the movement of their employees by holding their passports or threatening to have them deported back to Zimbabwe.

St. Vincent and the Grenadines is a source country for some children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically for the purpose of sexual exploitation within the country; it may also be a destination country for women in forced prostitution and men in forced labor. Reporting suggests that Vincentian children may participate in commercial sexual exploitation to supplement their families’ income. In these situations, parents, relatives, or other care-givers receive in-kind or financial compensation or other benefits from a child engaging in sexual activities. Reporting suggests the number of victims trafficked in, to, or through St. Vincent and the Grenadines is comparatively small. Information on the extent of human trafficking in St. Vincent and the Grenadines, however, is lacking, as the government has conducted no related investigations, studies, or surveys.

Tunisia is a source, destination, and possible transit country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. In 2009, one Tunisian female was rescued from forced prostitution in Lebanon. In 2008, two women were rescued from forced prostitution in Jordan and three men from forced labor in Italy. Based on limited available data, some Tunisian girls may be trafficked within the country for involuntary domestic servitude. In 2009 a Tunisian academic published a study on Tunisian domestic workers. The study, conducted in 2008, surveyed 130 domestic workers in the Greater Tunis region and found that 52 percent were under the age of 16; twenty-three percent claimed to be victims of physical violence, and 11 percent of sexual violence. Ninety-nine percent indicated they had no work contracts and the majority received salaries below the minimum wage. These conditions are indicators of possible forced labor.

Panama is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution. Although some Panamanian women and girls are found in forced prostitution in other countries in Latin America and in Europe, most Panamanian trafficking victims are exploited within the country. Although statistics were lacking, both NGOs and government officials anecdotally reported that commercial sexual exploitation of children was greater in rural areas and in the city of Colon than in Panama City. NGOs also report that some Panamanian children, mostly young girls, are subjected to involuntary domestic servitude. Weak controls along Panama's borders make the nation an easy transit point for irregular migrants, from Latin America, East Africa, and Asia, some of whom may fall victim to human trafficking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</span>

Papua New Guinea is a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor. Women and children are subjected to commercial sexual exploitation and involuntary domestic servitude; trafficked men are forced to provide labor in logging and mining camps. Children, especially young girls from tribal areas, are most vulnerable to being pushed into commercial sexual exploitation or forced labor by members of their immediate family or tribe. Families traditionally sell girls into forced marriages to settle their debts, leaving them vulnerable to involuntary domestic servitude, and tribal leaders trade the exploitative labor and service of girls and women for guns and political advantage. Young girls sold into marriage are often forced into domestic servitude for the husband’s extended family. In more urban areas, some children from poorer families are prostituted by their parents or sold to brothels. Migrant women and teenage girls from Malaysia, Thailand, China, and the Philippines are subjected to forced prostitution, and men from China are transported to the country for forced labor.

Peru is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Several thousand persons are estimated to be subjected to conditions of forced labor within Peru, mainly in mining, logging, agriculture, brick making, and domestic servitude. Many trafficking victims are women and girls from impoverished rural regions of the Amazon, recruited and coerced into prostitution in urban nightclubs, bars, and brothels, often through false employment offers or promises of education. Indigenous persons are particularly vulnerable to debt bondage. Forced child labor remains a problem, particularly in informal gold mines, cocaine production, and transportation. There were reports the terrorist group Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path, recruited children as soldiers and drug mules. To a lesser extent, Peruvians are subjected to forced prostitution in Ecuador, Spain, Italy, Japan, and the United States, and forced labor in Argentina, Chile, and Brazil. Peru also is a destination country for some Ecuadorian and Bolivian females in forced prostitution, and some Bolivian citizens in conditions of forced labor. Child sex tourism is present in Iquitos, Madre de Dios, and Cuzco. Traffickers reportedly operate with impunity in certain regions where there is little or no government presence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Ghana</span>

Ghana is a country of origin, transit, and destination for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. The nonconsensual exploitation of Ghanaian citizens, particularly children, is more common than the trafficking of foreign migrants. The movement of internally trafficked children is either from rural to urban areas, or from one rural area to another, as from farming to fishing communities.

Guinea is a source, transit, and to a lesser extent, a destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically in the areas of forced labor and forced prostitution. The majority of victims are children, and these incidents of trafficking are more prevalent among Guinean citizens than among foreign migrants living in Guinea. Within the country, girls are largely subjected to involuntary domestic servitude and commercial sexual exploitation, while boys are subjected to forced begging and forced labor as street vendors, shoe shiners, and laborers in gold and diamond mines. Some Guinean men are also subjected to forced agricultural labor within Guinea. Smaller numbers of girls from Mali, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Guinea-Bissau migrate to Guinea, where they are subjected to involuntary domestic servitude and likely also commercial sexual exploitation. Some Guinean boys and girls are subjected to forced labor in gold mining operations in Senegal, Mali, and possibly other African countries. Guinean women and girls are subjected to involuntary domestic servitude and forced prostitution in Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Senegal, Greece, and Spain. Chinese women are trafficked to Guinea for commercial sexual exploitation by Chinese traffickers. Networks also traffic women from Nigeria, India, and Greece through Guinea to the Maghreb and onward to Europe, notably Italy, Ukraine, Switzerland, and France for forced prostitution and involuntary domestic servitude.

Malta is a destination country for European women subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution. During this reporting period and in the past, the Maltese media also covered possible cases of Maltese teenage girls who may have been involved in forced prostitution in Malta. Malta is likely a destination country for men subjected to forced labor, as reflected by a report in 2009 that three Pakistani males were forced to work in Pakistani restaurants in Malta. The dozens of children and 4,304 total irregular migrants currently residing in Malta from African countries may be vulnerable to human trafficking in Malta’s “grey” informal labor market.

Brunei is a destination, and to a lesser extent, a source and transit country for men and women who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Men and women from Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, China, and Thailand migrate to Brunei for domestic or other low-skilled labor but sometimes face conditions of involuntary servitude upon arrival. There are over 88,000 migrant workers in Brunei, some of whom face debt bondage, non-payment of wages, passport confiscation, confinement to the home, and contract switching – factors that may contribute to trafficking. There were credible reports of nationals from South Asian countries subjected to nonpayment of wages and debt bondage in Brunei for up to two years to pay back foreign recruitment agents. Some of the 25,000 female domestic workers in Brunei were required to work exceptionally long hours without being granted a day for rest, creating an environment consistent with involuntary servitude. There are reports of women forced into prostitution in Brunei, and reports that women arrested for prostitution attest to having been victims of trafficking. Brunei is a transit country for trafficking victims in Malaysia, including Filipinas, who are brought to Brunei for work permit re-authorization before being returned to Malaysia.

Burundi is a source country for children and possibly women subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of involuntary domestic servitude and forced prostitution. Children and young adults may also be coerced into forced labor on plantations or small farms in southern Burundi, or to conduct informal commerce in the streets. Child labor is very common in agricultural fields where major exports, like tea and coffee, are harvested. Forced labour of children and adults is also very common in mines due to a large market for valuable stones and ores. Many trafficking victims can be found in mines in the northern area of Burundi, especially around Cibitoke. Some traffickers may be family or acquaintances of victims who, under the pretext of assisting underprivileged children with education or with false promises of lucrative jobs, subject them to forced labor, most commonly as domestic servants. While there is little evidence of large-scale child prostitution, “benevolent” older females offer vulnerable younger girls room and board within their homes, and in some cases eventually push them into prostitution to pay for living expenses; extended family members also financially profit from the commercial sexual exploitation of young relatives residing with them. It is most common for the trafficking of victims to remain internal within the country or to extend only to the surrounding countries. Male tourists from Oman and the United Arab Emirates exploit Burundian girls in prostitution. Businessmen recruit Burundian girls for commercial sexual exploitation in Rwanda, Kenya, and Uganda, and recruit boys and girls for exploitation in various types of forced labor in Tanzania. Unlike in past years, there were no reports of forced or voluntary recruitment of children into government armed forces or rebel groups during the reporting period. If the trafficking of Burundians does extend externally, it is most common for them to be sent to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Djibouti is a transit and, to a lesser extent, a source and destination country for men, women, and children who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and forced prostitution. There is little verifiable data on the human trafficking situation in Djibouti. An estimated 150 000 voluntary economic migrants from Ethiopia and Somalia passed illegally through Djibouti en route to Yemen and other locations in the Middle East in 2022; among this group, a small number of women and girls may fall victim to involuntary domestic servitude or forced commercial sexual exploitation after reaching Djibouti City or the Ethiopia-Djibouti trucking corridor. An unknown number of migrants – men, women, and children – are subjected to conditions of forced labor and forced prostitution after reaching Yemen and other destinations in the Middle East. Djibouti's large refugee population – consisting of Somalis, Ethiopians, and Eritreans – as well as foreign street children remain vulnerable to various forms of exploitation within the country, including human trafficking. Older street children reportedly act, at times, as pimps for younger children. A small number of girls from impoverished Djiboutian families may engage in prostitution with the encouragement of family members or other persons in prostitution. Members of foreign militaries stationed in Djibouti contribute to the demand for women and girls in prostitution, including trafficking victims.

Victims of human trafficking in Ecuador are generally women and children trafficked within the country from border and central highland areas to urban centers for commercial sexual exploitation, as well as for involuntary domestic servitude, forced begging, and forced labor in mines and other hazardous work. Ecuador prohibits human trafficking in its penal code, and penalties are commensurate with other serious crimes. Despite robust law enforcement efforts to combat trafficking, conviction rates remain low. The Ecuadorian government has ensured trafficking victims' access to legal, medical, psychological, and shelter services, in large part through its partnership with a network of NGOs. The government has also undertaken advertising campaigns against human trafficking, particularly child labor and child sex tourism. U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2" in 2017.

Equatorial Guinea is principally a destination for children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and possibly commercial sexual exploitation. Children are believed to be recruited and transported from nearby countries, primarily Nigeria, Benin, Cameroon, and Gabon, and forced to work in domestic servitude, market labor, ambulant vending, and other forms of forced labor, such as carrying water and washing laundry. Most victims are believed to be exploited in Malabo and Bata, where a burgeoning oil industry creates demand for labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Women may also have been recruited and transported to Equatorial Guinea from Cameroon, Benin, other neighboring countries, and from China for forced labor or forced prostitution. In October 2009, the vessel Sharon was detained in Gabon with 285 immigrants aboard, including 34 children identified as trafficking victims destined for Equatorial Guinea. Reports that women of Equatoguinean extraction were trafficked to Iceland for commercial sexual exploitation during the last reporting period have not reappeared.

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DeGregorio, Van. “Reversing Progress: The Trafficking of Cuban Baseball Players Continues After Cancellation of Mlb-Fcb Agreement 103.” St. Louis University Law Journal, vol. 65, no. 2, Winter 2021, pp. 381–399. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=151373229&site=ehost-live.

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“Matos Rodriguez Et Al v. Pan American Health Organization, No. 1:2020CV00928 - Document 69 (D.D.C. 2020).” Justia Law, https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/district-of-columbia/dcdce/1:2020cv00928/216865/69/.

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  4. 1 2 3 4 "2018 Trafficking in Persons Report - Cuba". Refworld. 2018-06-28. Retrieved 2022-04-08.
  5. 1 2 3 "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report: Cuba". U.S. Embassy in Cuba. 2019-06-20. Retrieved 2022-04-12.
  6. 1 2 3 "Cuba". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2022-04-20.
  7. ↑ "2017 Trafficking in Persons Report - Cuba". Refworld. 2017-06-27. Retrieved 2022-04-22.
  8. 1 2 "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report: Cuba". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2022-04-26.
  9. ↑ Hu-DeHart, Evelyn. “Chinese Contract Labor in the Wake of the Abolition of Slavery in the Americas: A New Form of Slavery or Transition to Free Labor in the Case of Cuba?” Amerasia Journal, vol. 45, no. 1, Apr. 2019, pp. 6–26. EBSCOhost, doi : 10.1080/00447471.2019.1623628
  10. 1 2 DeGregorio, Van. “Reversing Progress: The Trafficking of Cuban Baseball Players Continues After Cancellation of Mlb-Fcb Agreement 103.” St. Louis University Law Journal, vol. 65, no. 2, Winter 2021, pp. 381–399. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=151373229&site=ehost-live.
  11. ↑ "MATOS RODRIGUEZ et al v. PAN AMERICAN HEALTH ORGANIZATION, No. 1:2020cv00928 - Document 69 (D.D.C. 2020)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2023-02-11.
  12. ↑ “Cuba's Shameful Trafficking of Its Doctors.” Wall Street Journal - Online Edition, 22 June 2020, p. N.PAG. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=143873254&site=ehost-live.
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