Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in the Arctic

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Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated fishing (IUU) in the Arctic (see discussion of the Arctic boundaries) is an under researched scientific field. [1] The most recent academic articles about IUU in the Arctic mainly concerns the mid-2000s. [2] [3]

Contents

The research of IUU fishing in the Arctic and elsewhere in the world is complex and a multidisciplinary effort. Scholars researching IUU in the Arctic include political scientists, jurists, biologists, data scientists, risk analysts. [4] [5] [2] [6] The complexity of the issue, the remoteness of the region and the vast expenditures needed to conduct research in the Arctic are likely causes for this lack of knowledge.

Extent

The shady nature of IUU fishing makes it difficult for scholars and governments alike to get an overall view of the total amount of the IUU fishing in the Arctic. Scholars dealing with IUU in the Arctic often investigates a few subsets of species such as cod and haddock [2] or the king crab. [6] Thus, an overall view of IUU fishing of all commercially caught species in the Arctic is not available.

Arctic Cod
The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has estimated the amount of the unreported arctic cod for in the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) subarea 1 and 2 (The Barents Sea and parts of the Norwegian Sea). ICES estimate that in 1990–1994 and 2002–2008 between 3.2% and 25.2% of the total catch of arctic cod was unreported. [7] Although there is no knowledge about IUU fishing outside those periods ICES believes that by 2018 IUU fishing of arctic cod is close to zero. [8]

Haddock
Between 2002 and 2008 ICES estimates that between 3.7% and 25.4% of the landing of haddocks from the Russian and Norwegian parts of the Barents Sea was unreported. In 2018 they estimated that the IUU catches of haddock is close to zero. [9]

King Crab
A major decrease in the Russian king crab stock of the Barents Sea was observed between 2007 and 2008. Researchers mainly attribute the decline of king crabs to IUU fishing. [10] The decrease of king crabs eventually led to a moratorium of fishing of the king crabs in the waters off the coast of the Kola Peninsula. This has resulted in an increased abundance of king crabs. [11]

IUU fishing contributes significantly to the decline of fish stocks, with estimates indicating that at least 20% of fish caught globally are from IUU activities, costing coastal nations between $10 billion and $23 billion annually. [12]

The United States' 2023 Report to Congress identified seven nations and entities involved in IUU fishing, highlighting the global nature of the problem and the need for international cooperation to address it. [13] [14]

Regulation of Arctic fisheries

The management of Arctic fisheries is regulated by at least three layers of legislation. The global United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), agreements related to Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMO's) or bilateral agreements and national legislation.

United Nations' Law of the Seas (UNCLOS)

The UNCLOS serve as the underlying legal framework for the governance of the world's oceans. [15] Article 56 gives States sovereign rights for the exploitation and management of living resources within states' exclusive economic zone (EEZ). [16] However States should ensure:

"...the maintenance of the living resources… is not endangered by over-exploitation."

—  UNCLOS, Art. 61, [17]

Furthermore, States should cooperate in global, regional or subregional organizations to further this goal. [17] States have the same obligations for the conservation of living resources on the high seas. [18]

Several scholars do not consider the UNCLOS as adequate to secure fisheries in the Arctic high seas from IUU. [19] [20] [21] Instead scholars recommend the establishment of an effective RFMO's to regulate the high's seas of the Arctic. [22] [23] [24] [25]

Regional Fishery Management Organizations and Bilateral Agreements

The map is indicative of the location of the many Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMO) (blue) in the Northern Atlantic and parts of the Arctic. Important Regional Fishery Organizations in the North Atlantic.jpg
The map is indicative of the location of the many Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMO) (blue) in the Northern Atlantic and parts of the Arctic.

A patchwork of RFMO's and bilateral fishery agreements regulate fisheries in the Arctic. RFMO's have different regulatory competences such as geographical scope, type of species. Thus, no RFMO or bilateral fishery agreement claim competence of the whole of the Arctic or all commercially fished species in the Arctic. For some RFMO's the Arctic is only a minor part of the RFMO's area of competence. For example, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) covers the whole Atlantic Ocean including adjacent seas and regulate the capture of tuna species. [26] Other agreements cover only small parts of the Arctic. This apply for example for the bilateral Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission which regulates fisheries in the Barents Sea and parts of the Norwegian Sea [27] and the Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean regulates the Central Arctic Ocean. [28] The Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean came into force in June 2021. [29]

To diminish IUU fishing in the Arctic some RFMO's have established Port State Control measures and blacklisted vessels known for not observing national and international law. [30] [31] [32] [33]

Denmark

In Greenlandic waters the Royal Danish Navy is responsible for the enforcement of fishery law and fishery agreements beyond 3 nautical miles off the baseline (sea). Within 3 nautical miles off the baseline Greenland's Fishery License Control (Greenlandic: Kalaallit Nunaanni Aalisarsinnaanermut Akuersissutinik Nakkutilliisoqarfiup) monitor fisheries. [34]

United States

In US Arctic it is the United States Coast Guard is the responsible service for fishery law enforcement and thereby the preventing IUU fishing in the US Arctic waters. [35]

Norway

The Norwegian Coast Guard is responsible for enforcing the rules regarding IUU fishing together with the Directorate of Fisheries. [36] According to the Norwegian Government, the Coast Guard's monitoring of fisheries in the Norwegian EEZ and the protection zones around Jan Mayen and the Svalbard archipelago are one of the highest priorities of the Coast Guard. [37]

Russia

In Russia the Federal Agency for Fishery (Rosrybolovstvo) enforces fishery legislation in Russian waters as well as in international waters where Russia has signed RFMO agreements. [38] [39]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barents Sea</span> Marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia

The Barents Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia and divided between Norwegian and Russian territorial waters. It was known earlier among Russians as the Northern Sea, Pomorsky Sea or Murman Sea ; the current name of the sea is after the historical Dutch navigator Willem Barentsz.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King crab</span> Family of anomuran crustaceans

King crabs are decapod crustaceans of the family Lithodidae that are chiefly found in deep waters and are adapted to cold environments. They are composed of two subfamilies: Lithodinae, which tend to inhabit deep waters, are globally distributed, and comprise the majority of the family's species diversity; and Hapalogastrinae, which are endemic to the North Pacific and inhabit exclusively shallow waters. King crabs superficially resemble true crabs but are generally understood to be closest to the pagurid hermit crabs. This placement of king crabs among the hermit crabs is supported by several anatomical peculiarities which are present only in king crabs and hermit crabs. Although some doubt still exists about this hypothesis, king crabs are the most widely quoted example of carcinisation among decapods. Several species of king crabs, especially in Alaskan and southern South American waters, are targeted by commercial fisheries and have been subject to overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Marine Fisheries Service</span> Office of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), informally known as NOAA Fisheries, is a United States federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) that is responsible for the stewardship of U.S. national marine resources. It conserves and manages fisheries to promote sustainability and prevent lost economic potential associated with overfishing, declining species, and degraded habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unsustainable fishing methods</span> Fishing methods with expected lowering of fish population

Unsustainable fishing methods refers to the use of various fishing methods to capture or harvest fish at a rate that is unsustainable for fish populations. These methods facilitate destructive fishing practices that damage ocean ecosystems, resulting in overfishing.

A regional fishery body (RFB) is a type of international organization that is part of an international fishery agreement or arrangement to cooperate on the sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources and/or the development of marine capture fisheries whose such capacity has been recognized by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization under the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</span>

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) is an issue around the world. Fishing industry observers believe IUU occurs in most fisheries, and accounts for up to 30% of total catches in some important fisheries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red king crab</span> Species of king crab

The red king crab, also called Kamchatka crab or Alaskan king crab, is a species of king crab native to cold waters in the North Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas, but also introduced to the Barents Sea. It grows to a leg span of 1.8 m (5.9 ft), and is heavily targeted by fisheries.

The South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (SEAFO) is an organization that maintains controls over fishing and fishing related acts in the Southeastern Atlantic Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishing industry in Russia</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Seafood Sustainability Foundation</span>

International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (ISSF) was formed in 2009 as a global, non-profit partnership among the tuna industry, scientists and World Wide Fund for Nature. The multistakeholder group states its mission is "to undertake science-based initiatives for the long-term conservation and sustainable use of tuna stocks, reducing bycatch and promoting ecosystem health". Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) are primarily responsible for managing the world's tuna stocks—skipjack, yellowfin and albacore tuna, the species most commonly processed for canned and shelf-stable tuna products, but their parliamentary procedures too often allow the short-term economic and political interests of nations to prevent sustainable measures from being adopted. ISSF works to ensure that effective international management practices are in place to maintain the health of all the tuna stocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic cooperation and politics</span> Between the eight Arctic nations

Arctic cooperation and politics are partially coordinated via the Arctic Council, composed of the eight Arctic states: the United States, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, and Denmark with Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The dominant governmental power in Arctic policy resides within the executive offices, legislative bodies, and implementing agencies of the eight Arctic countries, and to a lesser extent other countries, such as United Kingdom, Germany, European Union and China. NGOs and academia play a large part in Arctic policy. Also important are intergovernmental bodies such as the United Nations and NATO.

The North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC) is an international, inter-governmental organization dedicated to the conservation of anadromous fish stocks in international waters of the North Pacific Ocean and its adjacent seas. It was established on 11 February 1992 by the Convention for the Conservation of Anadromous Stocks in the North Pacific Ocean and originally consisted of four member nations: Canada, Japan, Russian Federation, and United States of America. On 27 May 2003, the Republic of Korea acceded to the Convention bringing the current number of Commission members to five. The primary objective of the Commission is to provide a mechanism for international cooperation promoting the conservation of anadromous stocks in the NPAFC Convention Area of the North Pacific Ocean.

High seas fisheries management refers to the governance and regulation of fishing activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction, often referred to as the 'high seas'.1 The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1995 United Nations Fish Stock Agreement (UNFSA) provide the international legal framework for the regulation of fishing activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction. The United Nations Fish Stock Agreement delegates responsibility for conservation and management of fish stocks to regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) each governing a geographical area of the high seas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Directorate General of Marine and Fisheries Resources Surveillance</span> Law enforcement agency

The Directorate General of Marine and Fisheries Resources Surveillance is a government agency under the management of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of Indonesia. Formally established on 23 November 2000 according to Presidential Decree No. 165/2000, the PSDKP is the agency responsible for supervising the marine and fishery resources of the Republic of Indonesia. The main mission of PSDKP is the prevention of Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in Indonesian waters, which has caused a substantial loss for Indonesia's fishing industry. In its mission to prevent illegal fishing, PSDKP has conducted joint-operations with the Indonesian Navy, Water Police, Sea and Coast Guard, the Maritime Security Agency and Customs. PSDKP is however is not associated with these agencies.

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Transshipment or transhipment at sea is done by transferring goods such as cargo, personnel, and equipment from one ship to another. It is a common practice in global fisheries and typically takes place between smaller fishing vessels and large specialized refrigerated transport vessels, also referred to as “reefers” that onload catch and deliver supplies if necessary.

The fishing industry in Thailand, in accordance with usage by The World Bank, the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other multinational bodies, refers to and encompasses recreational fishing, aquaculture, and wild fisheries both onshore and offshore.

The Barents Sea is a secluded part of the Arctic Ocean divided between Norway and Russia. The politics in the Barents Sea is of paramount importance for the 2 countries relationship, showing both maritime conflict and maritime cooperation.

Fisheries crime describes the wide range of criminal activity that is common along the entire value chain of the fishing sector. It often occurs in conjunction with Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU), but next to illegal fish extraction include for example corruption, document fraud, tax evasion, money laundering, kidnapping, human trafficking and drug trafficking. The issue recently received increased attention in the UN, Interpol, and several other international bodies.

References

  1. ↑ Richard Barnes (2011): International Regulation of Fisheries Management in Arctic Waters, 54 German Y.B. Int'lL. 193; p.195
  2. 1 2 3 Aanes, Sondre, Kjell Nedreaas & Sigbjørn Ulvatn (2011) "Estimation of Total Retained Catch Based on Frequency of Fishing Trips at Sea, Transshipment and VMS Data". ICES Journal of Marine Science 68(8) 1598–1605
  3. ↑ Dvoretsky, Alexander G. & Vladimir G. Dvoretsky (2013) "Population dynamics of the invasive lithodid crab, Paralithodes camtschaticus, in a typical bay of the Barents Sea". ICES Journal of Marine Science 70(6), 1255–1262
  4. ↑ Østhagen, Andreas (2016) "High North, Low Politics – Maritime Cooperation with Russia in the Arctic", Arctic Review on Law and Politics. Vol. 7, No, 2016, pp. 83–100
  5. ↑ Barnes, Richard (2011) "International Regulation of Fisheries Management in Arctic Waters" German Yearbook of International Law, 54, 2011, 193–230
  6. 1 2 Dvoretsky, Alexander G. & Vladimir G. Dvoretsky (2013) "Population dynamics of the invasive lithodid crab, Paralithodes camtschaticus, in a typical bay of the Barents Sea" ICES Journal of Marine Science 70(6), 1255–1262
  7. ↑ ICES (2018) Ices Afwg Report 2018 Ices Advisory Committee Ices Cm 2018/ACOM:06 “Report of the Arctic Fisheries Working Group (AFWG) 18–24 April 2018 Ispra, Italy, p. 134”
  8. ↑ ICES (2018), p. 121
  9. ↑ ICES (2018), p. 205
  10. ↑ Dvoretsky, Alexander G. & Vladimir G. Dvoretsky (2013) “Population dynamics of the invasive lithodid crab, Paralithodes camtschaticus, in a typical bay of the Barents Sea”. ICES Journal of Marine Science 70(6), p.1260
  11. ↑ Dvoretsky, Alexander G. & Vladimir G. Dvoretsky (2018) "Red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus) fisheries in Russian waters: historical review and present status”, Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries (2018) 28:, p.347
  12. ↑ https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2023/08/31/despite-progress-illegal-catch-continues-to-reach-the-market.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. ↑ https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/illegal-fishing-which-fish-species-are-at-highest-risk-from-illegal-and-unreported-fishing.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  14. ↑ https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/noaa-identifies-certifies-nations-and-entities-improve-international-fisheries-management.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  15. ↑ Richard Barnes (2011): International Regulation of Fisheries Management in Arctic Waters, 54 German Y.B. Int'lL. 193; p.205
  16. ↑ "Part V – Exclusive Economic Zone, Article 56" (PDF). Law of the Sea. United Nations. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  17. 1 2 "Part V – Exclusive Economic Zone, Article 61" (PDF). Law of the Sea. United Nations. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  18. ↑ "Part VII Section 2 – Conservation and Management of the Living Resources of the High Seas, Article 116 & 117" (PDF). Law of the Sea. United Nations. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  19. ↑ Liu, Nengye, (2017) "The European Union's Potential Contribution to the Governance of High Sea Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean" in The European Union and the Arctic (edt.) Nengye Liu, Elizabeth A. Kirk, Tore Henriksen, p. 278
  20. ↑ Muir, Magdalena A.K. (2010) "Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing in the Circumpolar Arctic" InfoNorth Vol. 63, No. 3 (Sep 2010).
  21. ↑ Richard Barnes (2011): International Regulation of Fisheries Management in Arctic Waters, 54 German Y.B. Int'lL. 193, p. 206-208
  22. ↑ Liu, Nengye, (2017) "The European Union's Potential Contribution to the Governance of High Sea Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean" in The European Union and the Arctic (edt.) Nengye Liu, Elizabeth A. Kirk, Tore Henriksen, p. 288
  23. ↑ Muir, Magdalena A.K. (2010) "Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing in the Circumpolar Arctic" InfoNorth Vol. 63, No. 3 (Sep 2010), p.377.
  24. ↑ Aanes, Sondre, Kjell Nedreaas & Sigbjørn Ulvatn (2011) "Estimation of Total Retained Catch Based on Frequency of Fishing Trips at Sea, Transshipment and VMS Data". ICES Journal of Marine Science 68(8), p.1598-1599
  25. ↑ Richard Barnes (2011): International Regulation of Fisheries Management in Arctic Waters, 54 German Y.B. Int'lL. 193;
  26. ↑ "International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)". Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  27. ↑ "About the website". The Fisheries Commission. The Joint Russian-Norweagian Fisheries Commission. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  28. ↑ "Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean" (PDF). Interinstitutional File. The European Union (EU). Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  29. ↑ Quinn, Eilís. "Central Arctic Ocean fishing moratorium comes into effect". thebarentsobserver.com. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  30. ↑ "NEAFC IUU B List". North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  31. ↑ "Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported Fishing". Chapter VIII of the NAFO Conservation and Enforcement Measures refer to IUU activities and the establishment of an IUU List. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  32. ↑ "Conservation and Enforcement Measures 2019" (PDF). Chapter VII Port State Control. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  33. ↑ "About Port-State Control". Illegal Fishing. North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  34. ↑ "GFLK Årsrapport 2014" (PDF). Kapitel 1. Grønlands Fiskerilicenskontrol. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  35. ↑ "6 U.S. Code § 468. Preserving Coast Guard mission performance". Definitions (1) (D). Cornell University. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  36. ↑ "Norwegian fisheries management our approach on discard of fish" (PDF). Control and Enforcement. Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  37. ↑ "Norwegian fisheries management" (PDF). Norwegian Fisheries Authorities, p. 16-17. Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  38. ↑ "Federal Agency for Fishery". Description. The Russian Government. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  39. ↑ "Federal Agency for Fishery". Protection of aquatic bioresources and their habitats. The Russian Government. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
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