Imperfective aspect

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The imperfective (abbreviated IPFV or more ambiguously IMPV) is a grammatical aspect used to describe ongoing, habitual, repeated, or similar semantic roles, whether that situation occurs in the past, present, or future. Although many languages have a general imperfective, others have distinct aspects for one or more of its various roles, such as progressive, habitual, and iterative aspects. The imperfective contrasts with the perfective aspect, which is used to describe actions viewed as a complete whole.

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English

English is an example of a language with no general imperfective. The English progressive is used to describe ongoing events, but can still be used in past tense, such as "The rain was beating down". Habitual situations do not have their own verb form (in most dialects), but the construction "used to" conveys past habitual action, as in I used to ski. Unlike in languages with a general imperfective, in English the simple past tense can be used for situations presented as ongoing, such as The rain beat down continuously through the night.

A contrast between the progressive and imperfective is seen with stative verbs. In English, stative verbs, such as know, do not use the progressive (*I was knowing French is ungrammatical), while in languages with an imperfective (for instance, French), stative verbs frequently appear in the imperfective.

African American Vernacular English does have an imperfective aspect for present tense formed by adding "be" before the present continuous of a verb, such as "he be working", or "they be eating".

Indo-Aryan languages

Verbs in Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) have their grammatical aspects overtly marked. Periphrastic Hindi-Urdu verb forms (participle verb forms) consist of two elements, the first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker. [1] There are two independent imperfective aspects in Hindi-Urdu: Habitual Aspect , and Progressive Aspect. These two aspects are formed from their participle forms being used with the copula verb of Hindi which is होना honā (to be). However, the aspectual participles can also have the verbs रहना rêhnā (to stay/remain), आना ānā (to come) & जाना jānā (to go) as their copula. [2] [3] The table below shows three verbs होना honā (to be), करना karnā (to do), and मरना marnā (to die) in their aspectual infintive forms using different copulas. [4]

Simple

Aspect

Imperfective Aspect
Habitual

Aspect

Progressive

Aspect

होना

honā

to be

होता होना

hotā honā

to happen

होता रहना

hotā rêhnā

to keep happening

होता जाना

hotā jānā

to keep on happening

होता आना

hotā ānā

to have been happening

हो रहा होना

ho rahā honā

to be happening

हो रहा रहना

ho rahā rêhnā

to stay happening

करना

karnā

to do

करता होना

kartā honā

to be doing

करता रहना

kartā rêhnā

to stay doing

करता जाना

kartā jānā

to keep doing

करता आना

kartā ānā

to have been doing

कर रहा होना

kar rahā honā

to be doing

कर रहा रहना

kar rahā rêhnā

to stay doing

मरना

marnā

to die

मरता होना

martā honā

to be dying

मरता रहना

martā rêhnā

to stay dying

मरता जाना

martā jānā

to keep dying

मरता आना

martā ānā

to have been dying

मरा रहा होना

mar rahā honā

to be dying

मर रहा रहना

mar rahā rêhnā

to stay dying

Some translations are approximate, and the nuance cannot be expressed exactly in English. Some aspectual forms also have the same translations in English but are not interchangeable in Hindi-Urdu.

Now, these copula verbs (besides होना honā) can themselves be converted into their participle forms and put into one of the three different aspects of Hindi-Urdu, which are habitual , progressive , and perfective aspects, hence generating sub-aspectual infinitive forms. [5] This way a verb form combining two grammatical aspects is constructed. The table below shows the combined aspectual forms:

Imperfective Aspect
Habitual

Aspect

Progressive

Aspect

रहना (rêhnā)जाना (jānā)आना (ānā)रहना (rêhnā)
Habitual

subaspect

Perfective

subaspect

Progressive

subaspect

Habitual

subaspect

Progressive

subaspect

Progressive

subaspect

Habitual

subaspect

होता रहता होना

hotā rêhtā honā

to regularly keep happening

होता रहा होना

hotā rahā honā

to have been regularly happening

होता रह रहा होना

hotā rêh rahā honā

to stay being happening

होता जाता होना

hotā jātā honā

to continuously keep happening

होता जा रहा होना

hotā jā rahā honā

to continuously keep happening

होता आ रहा होना

hotā ā rahā honā

to have been continuously kept happening

हो रहा रहता होना

ho rahā rêhtā honā

to continuously stay happening progressively

करता रहता होना

kartā rêhtā honā

to regularly keep doing

करता रहा होना

kartā rahā honā

to have been regularly doing

करता रह रहा होना

kartā rêh rahā honā

to stay being doing

करता जाता होना

kartā jātā honā

to continuously keep doing

करता जा रहा होना

kartā jā rahā honā

to continuously keep doing

करता आ रहा होना

kartā ā rahā honā

to have been continuously kept doing

कर रहा रहता होना

kar rahā rêhtā honā

to continuously stay doing progressively

मरता रहता होना

martā rêhtā honā

to regularly keep dying

मरता रहा होना

martā rahā honā

to have been regularly dying

मरता रह रहा होना

martā rêh rahā honā

to stay being dying

मरता जाता होना

martā jātā honā

to continuously keep dying

मरता जा रहा होना

martā jā rahā honā

to continuously keep dying

मरता आ रहा होना

martā ā rahā honā

to have been continuously kept dying

मर रहा रहता होना

mar rahā rêhtā honā

to continuously stay dying progressively

The perfective subaspect of the habitual main aspect (habitual) also is imperfective (habitual). Also, these sub-aspects are even more nuanced that it is not possible to translate each of them into English in a unique way. Some translations don't even make sense in English.

Slavic languages

Verbs in Slavic languages have a perfective and/or an imperfective form. Generally, any of various prefixes can turn imperfectives into perfectives; [6] suffixes can turn perfectives into imperfectives. [7] The non-past imperfective form is used for the present, while its perfective counterpart is used for the future. There is also a periphrastic imperfective future construction. [8] :84

Other languages

The imperfective aspect may be fused with the past tense, for a form traditionally called the imperfect. In some cases, such as Spanish and Portuguese, this is because the imperfective aspect occurs only in the past tense; others, such as Georgian and Bulgarian, have both general imperfectives and imperfects. Other languages with distinct past imperfectives include Latin and Persian.

Perfective

The opposite aspect is the perfective (in Ancient Greek, generally called the aorist ), which views a situation as a simple whole, without interior composition. (This is not the same as the perfect .) Unlike most other tense–aspect category oppositions, it is typical for a language not to choose either perfective or imperfective as being generally marked and the other as being generally unmarked. [8] :69,72

In narrative, one of the uses of the imperfective is to set the background scene ("It was midnight. The room was dark. The rain was beating down. Water was streaming in through a broken window. A gun lay on the table."), with the perfective describing foregrounded actions within that scene ("Suddenly, a man burst into the room, ran over to the table, and grabbed the gun.").

English does not have these aspects. However, the background-action contrast provides a decent approximation in English:

"John was reading when I entered."

Here 'entered' presents "the totality of the situation referred to [...]: the whole of the situation is presented as a single unanalysable whole, with beginning, middle, and end all rolled into one; no attempt is made to divide this situation up into the various individual phases that make up the action of entry." [9] This is the essence of the perfective aspect: an event presented as an unanalyzed whole.

'Was reading', however, is different. Besides being the background to 'entered', the form 'reading' presents "an internal portion of John's reading, [with] no explicit reference to the beginning or to the end of his reading." [9] This is the essence of the imperfective aspect. Or, to continue the quotation, "the perfective looks at the situation from the outside, without necessarily distinguishing any of the internal structure of the situation, whereas the imperfective looks at the situation from inside, and as such is crucially concerned with the internal structure of the situation, since it can both look backwards towards the start of the situation, and look forwards to the end of the situation, and indeed it is equally appropriate if the situation is one that lasts through all time, without any beginning and without any end."

This is why, within the past tense, perfective verbs are typically translated into English as simple past, like 'entered', whereas imperfective verbs are typically translated as 'was reading', 'used to read', and the like. (In English, it is easiest to illustrate aspect in the past tense. However, any tense is possible: Present "John is reading as I enter", future "John will be reading when I enter", etc.: In each tense, the aspectual distinction is the same.)

This aspectual distinction is not inherent to the events themselves, but is decided by how the speaker views them or wishes to present them. The very same event may be described as perfective in one clause, and then imperfective in the next. For example,

"John read that book yesterday; while he was reading it, the postman came,"

where the two forms of 'to read' refer to the same thing. In 'John read that book yesterday', however, John's reading is presented as a complete event, without further subdivision into successive temporal phases; while in 'while he was reading it', this event is opened up, so that the speaker is now in the middle of the situation of John's reading, as it is in the middle of this reading that the postman arrives. [9]

The perfective and imperfective need not occur together in the same utterance; indeed they more often do not. However, it is difficult to describe them in English without an explicit contrast like "John was reading when I entered."

Combination

The two aspects may be combined on the same verb in a few languages, for perfective imperfectives and imperfective perfectives. Georgian and Bulgarian, for example, have parallel perfective-imperfective and aorist-imperfect forms, the latter restricted to the past tense. In Bulgarian, there are parallel perfective and imperfective stems; aorist and imperfect suffixes are typically added to the perfective and imperfective stems, respectively, but the opposite can occur. For example, an imperfect perfective is used in Bulgarian for a simple action that is repeated or habitual: [10]

vecher

evening

sedn-eshe

sit.PFV-PST.IPFV

na

on

chardak-a

veranda-DEF

vecher sedn-eshe na chardak-a

evening sit.PFV-PST.IPFV on veranda-DEF

In the evening, he would sit down on the veranda.

Here each sitting is an unanalyzed whole, a simple event, so the perfective root of the verb sedn 'sat' is used. However, the clause as a whole describes an ongoing event conceived of as having internal structure, so the imperfective suffix -eshe is added. Without the suffix, the clause would read simply as In the evening he sat on the veranda.

Related Research Articles

In linguistics, a copula /‘kɑpjələ/ is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things.

In grammar, tense is a category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns.

In linguistics, aspect is a grammatical category that expresses how a verbal action, event, or state, extends over time. For instance, perfective aspect is used in referring to an event conceived as bounded and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during the event. Imperfective aspect is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or habitually as time flows.

In linguistics, a participle is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, participle has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face".

In grammar, a future tense is a verb form that generally marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future. An example of a future tense form is the French aimera, meaning "will love", derived from the verb aimer ("love"). The "future" expressed by the future tense usually means the future relative to the moment of speaking, although in contexts where relative tense is used it may mean the future relative to some other point in time under consideration.

In linguistics, a defective verb is a verb that either lacks a conjugated form or entails incomplete conjugation, and thus cannot be conjugated for certain grammatical tenses, aspects, persons, genders, or moods that the majority of verbs or a "normal" or regular verb in a particular language can be conjugated for. That is to say, a defective verb lacks forms that most verbs in a particular language have.

In linguistic typology, split ergativity is a feature of certain languages where some constructions use ergative syntax and morphology, but other constructions show another pattern, usually nominative–accusative. The conditions in which ergative constructions are used vary among different languages.

The past tense is a grammatical tense whose function is to place an action or situation in the past. Examples of verbs in the past tense include the English verbs sang, went and washed. Most languages have a past tense, with some having several types in order to indicate how far back the action took place. Some languages have a compound past tense which uses auxiliary verbs as well as an imperfect tense which expresses continuous or repetitive events or actions. Some languages inflect the verb, which changes the ending to indicate the past tense, while non-inflected languages may use other words meaning, for example, "yesterday" or "last week" to indicate that something took place in the past.

Aorist verb forms usually express perfective aspect and refer to past events, similar to a preterite. Ancient Greek grammar had the aorist form, and the grammars of other Indo-European languages and languages influenced by the Indo-European grammatical tradition, such as Middle Persian, Sanskrit, Armenian, the South Slavic languages, Georgian, Pontic Greek, and Pashto, also have forms referred to as aorist.

The perfect tense or aspect is a verb form that indicates that an action or circumstance occurred earlier than the time under consideration, often focusing attention on the resulting state rather than on the occurrence itself. An example of a perfect construction is I have made dinner. Although this gives information about a prior action, the focus is likely to be on the present consequences of that action. The word perfect in this sense means "completed".

The continuous and progressive aspects are grammatical aspects that express incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time: they are non-habitual, imperfective aspects.

The imperfect is a verb form that combines past tense and imperfective aspect. It can have meanings similar to the English "was walking" or "used to walk". It contrasts with preterite forms, which refer to a single completed event in the past.

The perfective aspect, sometimes called the aoristic aspect, is a grammatical aspect that describes an action viewed as a simple whole, i.e., a unit without interior composition. The perfective aspect is distinguished from the imperfective aspect, which presents an event as having internal structure. The term perfective should be distinguished from perfect.

A feature common to all Indo-European languages is the presence of a verb corresponding to the English verb to be.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hindustani grammar</span> Grammatical features of the Hindustani lingua franca

Hindustani, the lingua franca of Northern India and Pakistan, has two standardised registers: Hindi and Urdu. Grammatical differences between the two standards are minor but each uses its own script: Hindi uses Devanagari while Urdu uses an extended form of the Perso-Arabic script, typically in the Nastaʿlīq style.

In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for signaling modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying. The term is also used more broadly to describe the syntactic expression of modality – that is, the use of verb phrases that do not involve inflection of the verb itself.

Tense–aspect–mood or tense–modality–aspect is a group of grammatical categories that are important to understanding spoken or written content, and which are marked in different ways by different languages.

In linguistics, the aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow in a given action, event, or state. As its name suggests, the habitual aspect, not to be confused with iterative aspect or frequentative aspect, specifies an action as occurring habitually: the subject performs the action usually, ordinarily, or customarily. As such, the habitual aspect provides structural information on the nature of the subject referent, "John smokes" being interpretable as "John is a smoker", "Enjoh habitually gets up early in the morning" as "Enjoh is an early bird". The habitual aspect is a type of imperfective aspect, which does not depict an event as a single entity viewed only as a whole but instead specifies something about its internal temporal structure.

In almost all modern Slavic languages, only one type of aspectual opposition governs verbs, verb phrases and verb-related structures, manifesting in two grammatical aspects: perfective and imperfective. The aspectual distinctions exist on the lexical level - speakers have no universal method of forming a perfective verb from a given imperfective one. Perfective verbs are most often formed by means of prefixes or suffixes, changes in the root, using a completely different root (suppletion), or changes in stress. Possessing a prefix does not necessarily mean that a verb is perfective.

Hindustani verbs conjugate according to mood, tense, person, number, and gender. Hindustani inflection is markedly simpler in comparison to Sanskrit, from which Hindustani has inherited its verbal conjugation system. Aspect-marking participles in Hindustani mark the aspect. Gender is not distinct in the present tense of the indicative mood, but all the participle forms agree with the gender and number of the subject. Verbs agree with the gender of the subject or the object depending on whether the subject pronoun is in the dative or ergative case or the nominative case.

References

  1. VAN OLPHEN, HERMAN (1975). "Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb". Indo-Iranian Journal. 16 (4): 284–301. doi:10.1163/000000075791615397. ISSN   0019-7246. JSTOR   24651488. S2CID   161530848.
  2. Shapiro, Michael C. (1989). A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 216–246. ISBN   81-208-0475-9.
  3. Campbell, George L. (1995). Compendium of the World's Languages. Great Britain: Routledge. pp. 225–229. ISBN   0-415-11392-X.
  4. Mahajan, Anoop (2012-02-01). "Ergatives, antipassives and the overt light v in Hindi". Lingua. Accounting for Ergativity. 122 (3): 204–214. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2011.10.011. ISSN   0024-3841.
  5. Shapiro, Michael C. (1989). A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 216–246. ISBN   81-208-0475-9.
  6. Bybee, Joan; Perkins, Revere; Pagliuca, William (1994). "1: Theoretical Background". The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 17. ISBN   9780226086651 . Retrieved 2016-08-04. The Slavic perfective prefixes originally signaled locative notions which made the verb telic (just as go out, go through, and eat up are telic in English).
  7. Josephson, Folke (2008). "Actionality and aspect in Hittite". In Josephson, Folke; Söhrman, Ingmar (eds.). Interdependence of Diachronic and Synchronic Analyses. Studies in language companion series. Vol. 103. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. p. 143. ISBN   9789027205704 . Retrieved 2016-08-04. The imperfective suffix in Slavic languages corresponds to the English progressive (cf. Borer 2005). [...] According to Arsenijevic the meaning of the Slavic imperfective suffix is slightly more general than that of the progressive.
  8. 1 2 Östen Dahl, 1985. Tense and Aspect Systems. Blackwell.
  9. 1 2 3 Bernard Comrie, 1976. Aspect. Cambridge University Press
  10. "Bulgarian", Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, ed. 2