Joint manipulation

Last updated

Joint manipulation is a type of passive movement of a skeletal joint. It is usually aimed at one or more 'target' synovial joints with the aim of achieving a therapeutic effect.

Contents

Definition of manipulation

Many definitions of joint manipulation have been proposed. [1] The most rigorous definition, based on available empirical research is that of Evans and Lucas: [2] "Separation (gapping) of opposing articular surfaces of a synovial joint, caused by a force applied perpendicularly to those articular surfaces, that results in cavitation within the synovial fluid of that joint." The corresponding definition for the mechanical response of a manipulation is: "Separation (gapping) of opposing articular surfaces of a synovial joint that results in cavitation within the synovial fluid of that joint." In turn, the action of a manipulation can be defined as: "A force applied perpendicularly to the articular surfaces."

Practice of manipulation

A modern re-emphasis on manipulative therapy occurred in the late 19th century in North America with the emergence of osteopathic medicine and chiropractic medicine. [3] In the context of healthcare, joint manipulation is performed by several professional groups. In North America and Europe, joint manipulation is most commonly performed by chiropractors (estimated to perform over 90% of all manipulative treatments [4] ), American-trained osteopathic physicians, occupational therapists, physiotherapists, and European osteopaths. When applied to joints in the spine, it is referred to as spinal manipulation.[ citation needed ]

Terminology

Manipulation is known by several other names. Historically, general practitioners and orthopaedic surgeons have used the term "manipulation". [5] Chiropractors refer to manipulation of a spinal joint as an 'adjustment'. Following the labelling system developed by Geoffery Maitland, [6] manipulation is synonymous with Grade V mobilization, a term commonly used by physical therapists. Because of its distinct biomechanics (see section below), the term high velocity low amplitude (HVLA) thrust is often used interchangeably with manipulation.[ citation needed ]

Biomechanics

Manipulation can be distinguished from other manual therapy interventions such as joint mobilization by its biomechanics, both kinetics and kinematics.

Kinetics

Until recently, force-time histories measured during spinal manipulation were described as consisting of three distinct phases: the preload (or prethrust) phase, the thrust phase, and the resolution phase. [7] Evans and Breen [8] added a fourth 'orientation' phase to describe the period during which the patient is oriented into the appropriate position in preparation for the prethrust phase.

When individual peripheral synovial joints are manipulated, the distinct force-time phases that occur during spinal manipulation are not as evident. In particular, the rapid rate of change of force that occurs during the thrust phase when spinal joints are manipulated is not always necessary. Most studies to have measured forces used to manipulate peripheral joints, such as the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints, show no more than gradually increasing load. This is probably because there are many more tissues restraining a spinal motion segment than an independent MCP joint.[ citation needed ]

Kinematics

The kinematics of a complete spinal motion segment when one of its constituent spinal joints are manipulated are much more complex than the kinematics that occur during manipulation of an independent peripheral synovial joint. Even so, the motion that occurs between the articular surfaces of any individual synovial joint during manipulation should be very similar and is described below.[ citation needed ]

Early models describing the kinematics of an individual target joint during the various phases of manipulation (notably Sandoz 1976) were based on studies that investigated joint cracking in MCP joints. The cracking was elicited by pulling the proximal phalanx away from the metacarpal bone (to separate, or 'gap' the articular surfaces of the MCP joint) with gradually increasing force until a sharp resistance, caused by the cohesive properties of synovial fluid, was met and then broken. These studies were therefore never designed to form models of therapeutic manipulation, and the models formed were erroneous in that they described the target joint as being configured at the end range of a rotation movement, during the orientation phase. [9] The model then predicted that this end range position was maintained during the prethrust phase until the thrust phase where it was moved beyond the 'physiologic barrier' created by synovial fluid resistance; conveniently within the limits of anatomical integrity provided by restraining tissues such as the joint capsule and ligaments. This model still dominates the literature. [9] However, after re-examining the original studies on which the kinematic models of joint manipulation were based, Evans and Breen [8] argued that the optimal prethrust position is actually the equivalent of the neutral zone of the individual joint, which is the motion region of the joint where the passive osteoligamentous stability mechanisms exert little or no influence. This new model predicted that the physiologic barrier is only confronted when the articular surfaces of the joint are separated (gapped, rather than the rolling or sliding that usually occurs during physiological motion), and that it is more mechanically efficient to do this when the joint is near to its neutral configuration.[ citation needed ]

Cracking joints

Joint manipulation is characteristically associated with the production of an audible 'clicking' or 'popping' sound. This sound is believed to be the result of a phenomenon known as cavitation occurring within the synovial fluid of the joint. When a manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint. This deforms the joint capsule and intra-articular tissues, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. [10] In this low pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave solution creating a bubble or cavity, which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a 'clicking' sound. The contents of this gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide. [11] The effects of this process will remain for a period of time termed the 'refractory period', which can range from a few minutes to more than an hour, while it is slowly reabsorbed back into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity around the target joint is associated with an increased probability of cavitation. [12]

Clinical effects and mechanisms of action

The clinical effects of joint manipulation have been shown to include:

Common side effects of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) are characterized as mild to moderate and may include: local discomfort, headache, tiredness, or radiating discomfort. [17]

Shekelle (1994) summarised the published theories for mechanism(s) of action for how joint manipulation may exert its clinical effects as the following:

Safety issues

As with all interventions, there are risks associated with joint manipulation, especially manipulation of spinal joints. Infrequent, but potentially serious side effects, include: vertebrobasilar accidents (VBA), strokes, spinal disc herniation, vertebral and rib fractures, and cauda equina syndrome. [17]

In a 1993 study, J.D. Cassidy, DC, and co-workers concluded that the treatment of lumbar intervertebral disk herniation by side posture manipulation is "both safe and effective." [18] In a 2019 study, L.M. Mabry, PT, and colleagues reported joint manipulation adverse events to be rare. [19]

Risks of upper cervical manipulation

The degree of serious risks associated with manipulation of the cervical spine is uncertain, with widely differing results being published.

A 2008 study in the journal "Spine", JD Cassidy, E Boyle, P Cote', Y He, et al. investigated 818 VBA strokes that were hospitalized in a population of more than 100 million person-years. In those aged <45 years, cases were about three times more likely to see a chiropractor or a PCP before their stroke than controls. Results were similar in the case control and case cross over analyses. There was no increased association between chiropractic visits and VBA stroke in those older than 45 years. Positive associations were found between PCP visits and VBA stroke in all age groups. The study concluded that VBA stroke is a very rare event in the population. The increased risks of VBA stroke associated with chiropractic and PCP visits is likely due to patients with headache and neck pain from VBA dissection seeking care before their stroke. The study found no evidence of excess risk of VBA stroke associated chiropractic care compared to primary care. [20]

A 1996 Danish chiropractic study confirmed the risk of stroke to be low, and determined that the greatest risk is with manipulation of the first two vertebra of the cervical spine, particularly passive rotation of the neck, known as the "master cervical" or "rotary break." [21]

Serious complications after manipulation of the cervical spine are estimated to be 1 in 4 million manipulations or fewer. [22] A RAND Corporation extensive review estimated "one in a million." [23] Dvorak, in a survey of 203 practitioners of manual medicine in Switzerland, found a rate of one serious complication per 400,000 cervical manipulations, without any reported deaths, among an estimated 1.5 million cervical manipulations. [24] Jaskoviak reported approximately 5 million cervical manipulations from 1965 to 1980 at The National College of Chiropractic Clinic in Chicago, without a single case of vertebral artery stroke or serious injury. [25] Henderson and Cassidy performed a survey at the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College outpatient clinic where more than a half-million treatments were given over a nine-year period, again without serious incident. [26] Eder offered a report of 168,000 cervical manipulations over a 28-year period, again without a single significant complication. [27] After an extensive literature review performed to formulate practice guidelines, the authors concurred that "the risk of serious neurological complications (from cervical manipulation) is extremely low, and is approximately one or two per million cervical manipulations." [28]

In comparison, there is a 3-4% rate of complications for cervical spinal surgery, and 4,000-10,000 deaths per million neck surgeries. [29]

Understandably, vascular accidents are responsible for the major criticism of spinal manipulative therapy. However, it has been pointed out that "critics of manipulative therapy emphasize the possibility of serious injury, especially at the brain stem, due to arterial trauma after cervical manipulation. It has required only the very rare reporting of these accidents to malign a therapeutic procedure that, in experienced hands, gives beneficial results with few adverse side effects". [30] In very rare instances, the manipulative adjustment to the cervical spine of a vulnerable patient becomes the final intrusive act which results in a very serious consequence. [31] [32] [33] [34]

Potential for incident underreporting

Statistics on the reliability of incident reporting for injuries related to manipulation of the cervical spine vary. The RAND study assumed that only 1 in 10 cases would have been reported. However, Prof Ernst surveyed neurologists in Britain for cases of serious neurological complications occurring within 24 hours of cervical spinal manipulation by various types of practitioners; 35 cases had been seen by the 24 neurologists who responded, but none of the cases had been reported. He concluded that underreporting was close to 100%, rendering estimates "nonsensical." He therefore suggested that "clinicians might tell their patients to adopt a cautious approach and avoid the type of spinal manipulation for which the risk seems greatest: forceful manipulation of the upper spine with a rotational element." [35] The NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination stated that the survey had methodological problems with data collection. [36] Both NHS and Ernst noted that bias is a problem with the survey method of data collection.

A 2001 study in the journal Stroke found that vertebrobasilar accidents (VBAs) were five times more likely in those aged less than 45 years who had visited a chiropractor in the preceding week, compared to controls who had not visited a chiropractor. No significant associations were found for those over 45 years. The authors concluded: "While our analysis is consistent with a positive association in young adults... The rarity of VBAs makes this association difficult to study despite high volumes of chiropractic treatment." [37] The NHS notes that this study collected data objectively by using administrative data, involving less recall bias than survey studies, but the data were collected retrospectively and probably contained inaccuracies. [36]

In 1996, Coulter et al. [23] had a multidisciplinary group of 4 MDs, 4 DCs and 1 MD/DC look at 736 conditions where it was used. Their job was to evaluate the appropriateness of manipulation or mobilization of the cervical spine in those cases (including a few cases not performed by chiropractors).

"According to the report ... 57.6% of reported indications for cervical manipulation was considered inappropriate, with 31.3% uncertain. Only 11.1% could be labeled appropriate. A panel of chiropractors and medical practitioners concluded that '. . . much additional scientific data about the efficacy of cervical spine manipulation are needed.'" [38]

Misattribution problems

Studies of stroke and manipulation do not always clearly identify what professional has performed the manipulation. In some cases this has led to confusion and improper placement of blame. In a 1995 study, chiropractic researcher Allan Terrett, DC, pointed to this problem:

"The words chiropractic and chiropractor have been incorrectly used in numerous publications dealing with SMT injury by medical authors, respected medical journals and medical organizations. In many cases, this is not accidental; the authors had access to original reports that identified the practitioner involved as a nonchiropractor. The true incidence of such reporting cannot be determined. Such reporting adversely affects the reader's opinion of chiropractic and chiropractors." [39]

This error was taken into account in a 1999 review [40] of the scientific literature on the risks and benefits of manipulation of the cervical spine (MCS). Special care was taken, whenever possible, to correctly identify all the professions involved, as well as the type of manipulation responsible for any injuries and/or deaths. It analyzed 177 cases that were reported in 116 articles published between 1925 and 1997, and summarized:

"The most frequently reported injuries involved arterial dissection or spasm, and lesions of the brain stem. Death occurred in 32 (18%) of the cases. Physical therapists were involved in less than 2% of the cases, and no deaths have been attributed to MCS provided by physical therapists. Although the risk of injury associated with MCS appears to be small, this type of therapy has the potential to expose patients to vertebral artery damage that can be avoided with the use of mobilization (nonthrust passive movements)." [40]

In Figure 1 in the review, the types of injuries attributed to manipulation of the cervical spine are shown, [41] and Figure 2 shows the type of practitioner involved in the resulting injury. [42] For the purpose of comparison, the type of practitioner was adjusted according to the findings by Terrett. [39]

The review concluded:

"The literature does not demonstrate that the benefits of MCS outweigh the risks. Several recommendations for future studies and for the practice of MCS are discussed." [40]

Edzard Ernst has written:

"...there is little evidence to demonstrate that spinal manipulation has any specific therapeutic effects. On the other hand, there is convincing evidence to show that it is associated with frequent, mild adverse effects as well as with serious complications of unknown incidence. Therefore, it seems debatable whether the benefits of spinal manipulation outweigh its risks. Specific risk factors for vascular accidents related to spinal manipulation have not been identified, which means that any patient may be at risk, particularly those below 45 years of age. Definitive, prospective studies that can overcome the limitations of previous investigations are now a matter of urgency. Until they are available, clinicians might tell their patients to adopt a cautious approach and avoid the type of spinal manipulation for which the risk seems greatest: forceful manipulation of the upper spine with a rotational element." [35]

Emergency medicine

In emergency medicine joint manipulation can also refer to the process of bringing fragments of fractured bone or dislocated joints into normal anatomical alignment (otherwise known as 'reducing' the fracture or dislocation). These procedures have no relation to the HVLA thrust procedure.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joint cracking</span> Bending persons joints to produce a distinct cracking or popping sound

Joint cracking is the manipulation of joints to produce a sound and related "popping" sensation. It is sometimes performed by physical therapists, chiropractors, osteopaths pursuing a variety of outcomes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chiropractic</span> Form of pseudoscientific alternative medicine

Chiropractic is a form of alternative medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially of the spine. It has esoteric origins and is based on several pseudoscientific ideas.

A subluxation is an incomplete or partial dislocation of a joint or organ. According to the World Health Organization, a subluxation is a "significant structural displacement" and is therefore visible on static imaging studies, such as X-rays. Unlike real subluxations, the pseudoscientific concept of a chiropractic "vertebral subluxation" may or may not be visible on x-rays.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vertebral subluxation</span> Chiropractic concept

In chiropractic, a vertebral subluxation means pressure on nerves, abnormal functions creating a lesion in some portion of the body, either in its action or makeup. Chiropractors claim subluxations are not necessarily visible on X-rays.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vertebral artery</span> Major arteries of the neck

The vertebral arteries are major arteries of the neck. Typically, the vertebral arteries originate from the subclavian arteries. Each vessel courses superiorly along each side of the neck, merging within the skull to form the single, midline basilar artery. As the supplying component of the vertebrobasilar vascular system, the vertebral arteries supply blood to the upper spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, and posterior part of brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinal adjustment</span> Chiropractic technique

Spinal adjustment and chiropractic adjustment are terms used by chiropractors to describe their approaches to spinal manipulation, as well as some osteopaths, who use the term adjustment. Despite anecdotal success, there is no scientific evidence that spinal adjustment is effective against disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinal manipulation</span> Intervention performed on spinal joints

Spinal manipulation is an intervention performed on synovial joints of the spine, including the z-joints, the atlanto-occipital, atlanto-axial, lumbosacral, sacroiliac, costotransverse and costovertebral joints. It is typically applied with therapeutic intent, most commonly for the treatment of low back pain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carotid artery dissection</span> Human disease

Carotid artery dissection is a separation of the layers of the artery wall in the carotid arteries supplying oxygen-bearing blood to the head. It is the most common cause of stroke in younger adults. The term 'cervical artery dissection' should also be considered in the context of this article.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vertebral artery dissection</span> Tear of the inner lining of the vertebral artery

Vertebral artery dissection (VAD) is a flap-like tear of the inner lining of the vertebral artery, which is located in the neck and supplies blood to the brain. After the tear, blood enters the arterial wall and forms a blood clot, thickening the artery wall and often impeding blood flow. The symptoms of vertebral artery dissection include head and neck pain and intermittent or permanent stroke symptoms such as difficulty speaking, impaired coordination, and visual loss. It is usually diagnosed with a contrast-enhanced CT or MRI scan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinal disc herniation</span> Injury to the connective tissue between spinal vertebrae

A spinal disc herniation is an injury to the intervertebral disc between two spinal vertebrae, usually caused by excessive strain or trauma to the spine. It may result in back pain, pain or sensation in different parts of the body, and physical disability. The most conclusive diagnostic tool for disc herniation is MRI, and treatment may range from painkillers to surgery. Protection from disc herniation is best provided by core strength and an awareness of body mechanics including good posture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Facet joint</span> Joint between two adjacent vertebrae

The facet joints are a set of synovial, plane joints between the articular processes of two adjacent vertebrae. There are two facet joints in each spinal motion segment and each facet joint is innervated by the recurrent meningeal nerves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of chiropractic</span>

The history of chiropractic began in 1895 when Daniel David Palmer of Iowa performed the first chiropractic adjustment on a partially deaf janitor, Harvey Lillard. While Lillard was working without his shirt on in Palmer's office, Lillard bent over to empty the trash can. Palmer noticed that Lillard had a vertebra out of position. He asked Lillard what happened, and Lillard replied, "I moved the wrong way, and I heard a 'pop' in my back, and that's when I lost my hearing." Palmer, who was also involved in many other natural healing philosophies, had Lillard lie face down on the floor and proceeded with the adjustment. The next day, Lillard told Palmer, "I can hear that rackets on the streets." This experience led Palmer to open a school of chiropractic two years later. Rev. Samuel H. Weed coined the word "chiropractic" by combining the Greek words cheiro (hand) and praktikos.

Manipulation under anesthesia (MUA) or fibrosis release procedures is a multidisciplinary, chronic pain-related manual therapy modality which is used for the purpose of improving articular and soft tissue movement. This is accomplished by way of a combination of controlled joint mobilization/manipulation and myofascial release techniques. MUA is used by osteopathic/orthopedic physicians, chiropractors and specially trained physicians. It aims to break up adhesions on or around spinal joints or extremity joints to which a restricted range of motion can be painful and limit function. Failed attempts at other standard conservative treatment methods, over a sufficient time-frame, is one of the principal patient qualifiers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Activator technique</span> Chiropractic treatment method and device

The Activator Method Chiropractic Technique is a chiropractic treatment method that uses a device created by Arlan Fuhr as an alternative to manual manipulation of the spine or extremity joints. The device is categorized as a mechanical force manual assisted (MFMA) instrument which is generally regarded as a softer chiropractic treatment technique. The method purports to use the device to identify and remove vertebral subluxations and correct "pelvic deficiency", defined as an "'apparent' difference in leg length, not an anatomical difference". These claims have been criticized.

Chiropractors use their version of spinal manipulation as their primary treatment method, with non-chiropractic use of spinal manipulation gaining more study and attention in mainstream medicine in the 1980s. There is no evidence that chiropractic spinal adjustments are effective for any medical condition, with the possible exception of treatment for lower back pain. The safety of manipulation, particularly on the cervical spine has been debated. Adverse results, including strokes and deaths, are rare.

Throughout its history, chiropractic has been the subject of internal and external controversy and criticism. According to magnetic healer Daniel D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, "vertebral subluxation" was the sole cause of all diseases and manipulation was the cure for all disease. A 2003 profession-wide survey found "most chiropractors still hold views of Innate Intelligence and of the cause and cure of disease consistent with those of the Palmers". A critical evaluation stated "Chiropractic is rooted in mystical concepts. This led to an internal conflict within the chiropractic profession, which continues today." Chiropractors, including D.D. Palmer, were jailed for practicing medicine without a license. D.D. Palmer considered establishing chiropractic as a religion to resolve this problem. For most of its existence, chiropractic has battled with mainstream medicine, sustained by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas such as vertebral subluxation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Veterinary chiropractic</span>

Veterinary chiropractic, also known as animal chiropractic, is chiropractic for animals – a type of spinal manipulation. Veterinary chiropractors typically treat horses, racing greyhounds, and pets. Veterinary chiropractic is a controversial method due to a lack of evidence as to the efficacy of chiropractic methods. Contrary to traditional medicine, chiropractic therapies are alternative medicine. There is some degree of risk associated with even skilled manipulation in animals as the potential for injury exists with any technique used. The founder of chiropractic, Daniel David Palmer, used the method on animals, partly to challenge claims that the placebo effect was responsible for favorable results in humans. Chiropractic treatment of large animals dates back to the early 1900s. As of 2019, many states in the US provide statutory or regulatory guidelines for the practice of chiropractic and related treatments on animals, generally requiring some form of veterinary involvement.

Osteomyology is a multi-disciplined form of alternative medicine found almost exclusively in the United Kingdom and is loosely based on aggregated ideas from other manipulation therapies, principally chiropractic and osteopathy. It is a results-based physical therapy tailored specifically to the needs of the individual patient. Osteomyologists have been trained in osteopathy and chiropractic, but do not require to be regulated by the General Osteopathic Council (GOsC) or the General Chiropractic Council (GCC).

Various organizations of practicing chiropractors have outlined formal codes of professional ethics. Actual practice has revealed a wide range of behaviors which may or may not conform to these standards.

Cervical manipulation, commonly known as neck manipulation, is a procedure involving adjustment of the upper seven vertebrae of the spinal column. This procedure is most often utilized by chiropractors, as well as osteopathic physicians who practice osteopathic manipulation. This type of manipulation may increase the risk of stroke and other issues, with studies suggesting the relationship is causative.

References

  1. ↑ Evans DW, Lucas N (2010). "What is 'manipulation'? A reappraisal". Man Ther. 15 (3): 286–91. doi:10.1016/j.math.2009.12.009. PMID   20080431. S2CID   12195189.
  2. ↑ Evans DW, Lucas N (2023). "What is manipulation? A new definition". BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 15, 24(1) (1): 194. doi: 10.1186/s12891-023-06298-w . PMC   10015914 . PMID   36918833.
  3. ↑ Keating JC Jr (2003). "Several pathways in the evolution of chiropractic manipulation". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 26 (5): 300–21. doi:10.1016/S0161-4754(02)54125-7. PMID   12819626.
  4. ↑ Shekelle PG, Adams AH, Chassin MR, Hurwitz EL, Brook RH (1992). "Spinal manipulation for low-back pain". Annals of Internal Medicine. 117 (7): 590–598. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-117-7-590. PMID   1388006. S2CID   35702578.
  5. ↑ Burke, G.L., "Backache from Occiput to Coccyx Archived 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine " Chapter 7
  6. ↑ Maitland, G.D. Peripheral Manipulation 2nd ed. Butterworths, London, 1977.
    Maitland, G.D. Vertebral Manipulation 5th ed. Butterworths, London, 1986.
  7. ↑ Herzog W, Symons B (2001). "The biomechanics of spinal manipulation". Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med. 13 (2): 191–216. doi:10.1615/CritRevPhysRehabilMed.v13.i2-3.50.
  8. 1 2 Evans DW, Breen AC (2006). "A biomechanical model for mechanically efficient cavitation production during spinal manipulation: prethrust position and the neutral zone". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 29 (1): 72–82. doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2005.11.011. PMID   16396734.
  9. 1 2 Evans DW (2022). "Why is the prevailing model of joint manipulation (still) incorrect?". Chiropr Man Ther. 30 (1): 51. doi: 10.1186/s12998-022-00460-2 . PMC   9733235 . PMID   36494698.
  10. ↑ Brodeur R. (1995). "The audible release associated with joint manipulation". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 18 (3): 155–64. PMID   7790795.
  11. ↑ Unsworth A, Dowson D, Wright V (1971). "'Cracking joints'. A bioengineering study of cavitation in the metacarpophalangeal joint". Ann Rheum Dis. 30 (4): 348–58. doi:10.1136/ard.30.4.348. PMC   1005793 . PMID   5557778.
  12. ↑ Fryer GA, Mudge JM, McLaughlin PA (2002). "The effect of talocrural joint manipulation on range of motion at the ankle" (PDF). Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics . 25 (6): 384–90. doi:10.1067/mmt.2002.126129. PMID   12183696.
  13. ↑ Sutlive TG, Mabry LM, Easterling EJ, Durbin JD, Hanson SL, Wainner RS, Childs JD (2009). "Comparison of short-term response to two spinal manipulation techniques for patients with low back pain in a military beneficiary population". Mil Med. 174 (7): 750–756. doi: 10.7205/milmed-d-02-4908 . PMID   19685848.
  14. ↑ Nilsson N, Christensen H, Hartvigsen J (1996). "Lasting changes in passive range motion after spinal manipulation: a randomized, blind, controlled trial". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 19 (3): 165–8. PMID   8728459.
  15. ↑ Murphy BA, Dawson NJ, Slack JR (March 1995). "Sacroiliac joint manipulation decreases the H-reflex". Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 35 (2): 87–94. PMID   7781578.
  16. ↑ Tullberg T, Blomberg S, Branth B, Johnsson R (May 1998). "Manipulation does not alter the position of the sacroiliac joint. A roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis". Spine. 23 (10): 1124–8, discussion 1129. doi:10.1097/00007632-199805150-00010. PMID   9615363. S2CID   36480639. Because the supposed positive effects are not a result of a reduction of subluxation, further studies of the effects of manipulation should focus on the soft tissue response.
  17. 1 2 Senstad O, Leboeuf-Yde C, Borchgrevink C (February 1997). "Frequency and characteristics of side effects of spinal manipulative therapy". Spine. 22 (4): 435–40, discussion 440–1. doi:10.1097/00007632-199702150-00017. PMID   9055373. S2CID   7482895.
  18. ↑ Cassidy JD, Thiel H, Kirkaldy-Willis W (1993). "Side posture manipulation for lumbar intervertebral disk herniation". J Manip Physiol Ther. 16 (2): 96–103. PMID   8445360.
  19. ↑ Mabry LM, Notestine JP, Moore JH, Bleakley CM, Taylor JB (2019). "Safety Events and Privilege Utilization Rates in Advanced Practice Physical Therapy Compared to Traditional Primary Care: An Observational Study". Mil Med. 185 (1–2): e290–e297. doi: 10.1093/milmed/usz176 . PMID   31322706.
  20. ↑ Cassidy, J. David; et al. (2008). "Risk of Vertebrobasilar Stroke and Chiropractic Care:Results of a Population-Based Case-Control and Case-Crossover Study". Spine. 17 (Suppl 1): S176–S183. doi:10.1007/s00586-008-0634-9. PMC   2271108 .
  21. ↑ Klougart N, Leboeuf-Yde C, Rasmussen L (1996). "Safety in chiropractic practice, Part I; The occurrence of cerebrovascular accidents after manipulation to the neck in Denmark from 1978-1988". J Manip Physiol Ther. 19 (6): 371–7. PMID   8864967.
  22. ↑ Lauretti W "What are the risk of chiropractic neck treatments?" retrieved online 08 028 2006 from www.chiro.org
  23. 1 2 Coulter ID, Hurwitz EL, Adams AH, et al. (1996) The appropriateness of manipulation and mobilization of the cervical spine 'Santa Monica, CA, Rand Corp: xiv [RAND MR-781-CCR]. Current link
  24. ↑ Dvorak J, Orelli F. How dangerous is manipulation to the cervical spine? Manual Medicine 1985; 2: 1-4.
  25. ↑ Jaskoviak P. Complications arising from manipulation of the cervical spine. J Manip Physiol Ther 1980; 3: 213-19.
  26. ↑ Henderson DJ, Cassidy JD. Vertebral Artery syndrome. In: Vernon H. Upper cervical syndrome: chiropractic diagnosis and treatment. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1988: 195-222.
  27. ↑ Eder M, Tilscher H. Chiropractic therapy: diagnosis and treatment (English translation). Rockville, Md: Aspen Publishers, 1990: 61.
  28. ↑ Haldeman S, Chapman-Smith D, Petersen DM. Guidelines for chiropractic quality assurance and practice parameters. Gaithersburg, Md: Aspen Publishers, 1993: 170-2.
  29. ↑ The cervical spine research society editorial committee. The Cervical Spine, Second edition. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company 1990: 834.
  30. ↑ Kleynhans AM, Terrett AG. Cerebrovascular complications of manipulation. In: Haldeman S, ed. Principles and practice of chiropractic, 2nd ed. East Norwalk, CT, Appleton Lang, 1992.
  31. ↑ Haldeman S, Kohlbeck FJ, McGregor M (January 2002). "Unpredictability of cerebrovascular ischemia associated with cervical spine manipulation therapy: a review of sixty-four cases after cervical spine manipulation". Spine. 27 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1097/00007632-200201010-00012. PMID   11805635. S2CID   11271986.
  32. ↑ Rothwell DM, Bondy SJ, Williams JI (May 2001). "Chiropractic manipulation and stroke: a population-based case-control study". Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 32 (5): 1054–60. doi: 10.1161/01.STR.32.5.1054 . PMID   11340209.
  33. ↑ Haldeman S, Carey P, Townsend M, Papadopoulos C (2002). "Clinical perceptions of the risk of vertebral artery dissection after cervical manipulation: the effect of referral bias". The Spine Journal. 2 (5): 334–42. doi:10.1016/S1529-9430(02)00411-4. PMID   14589464.
  34. ↑ Haldeman S, Carey P, Townsend M, Papadopoulos C (October 2001). "Arterial dissections following cervical manipulation: the chiropractic experience". CMAJ. 165 (7): 905–6. PMC   81498 . PMID   11599329.
  35. 1 2 Ernst E (January 2002). "Spinal manipulation: its safety is uncertain". CMAJ. 166 (1): 40–1. PMC   99224 . PMID   11800245.
  36. 1 2 NHS Evaluation of the evidence base for the adverse effects of spinal manipulation by chiropractors Archived 2006-05-30 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ↑ Rothwell D, Bondy S, Williams J (2001). "Chiropractic manipulation and stroke: a population-based case-control study". Stroke. 32 (5): 1054–60. doi: 10.1161/01.STR.32.5.1054 . PMID   11340209. Original article
  38. ↑ Homola S (1998). "Finding a good chiropractor". Archives of Family Medicine. 7 (1): 20–3. doi:10.1001/archfami.7.1.20. PMID   9443693. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16.
  39. 1 2 Terrett A (1995). "Misuse of the literature by medical authors in discussing spinal manipulative therapy injury". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 18 (4): 203–10. PMID   7636409.
  40. 1 2 3 Di Fabio R (1999). "Manipulation of the cervical spine: risks and benefits". Phys Ther. 79 (1): 50–65. PMID   9920191 . Retrieved 2006-11-17.
  41. ↑ "Figure 1. Injuries attributed to manipulation of the cervical spine". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2006-11-05.
  42. ↑ "Figure 2. Practitioners providing manipulation of the cervical spine that resulted in injury". Archived from the original on 2007-02-25. Retrieved 2006-11-05.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.