Osteopathic medicine in the United States |
---|
![]() |
Andrew Taylor Still (founder) |
Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO or D.O., or in Australia DO USA [1] ) is a medical degree conferred by the 38 osteopathic medical schools in the United States. [2] [3] [4] DO and Doctor of Medicine (MD) degrees are equivalent: a DO graduate may become licensed as a physician or surgeon and thus have full medical and surgical practicing rights in all 50 US states. As of 2021 [update] , there were 168,701 osteopathic physicians and medical students in DO programs across the United States. [5] Osteopathic medicine (as defined and regulated in the United States) emerged historically from the quasi-medical practice of osteopathy, but has become a distinct and proper medical profession.
As of 2014 [update] , more than 28% of all U.S. medical students were DO students. [6] [7] The curricula at DO-granting medical schools are equivalent to those at MD-granting medical schools, which focus the first two years on the biomedical and clinical sciences, then two years on core clinical training in the clinical specialities. [8]
One notable difference between DO and MD training is that DOs spend an additional 300–500 hours to study pseudoscientific hands-on manipulation of the human musculoskeletal system (osteopathic manipulative technique) alongside conventional evidence-based medicine and surgery like their MD peers. [9] [10] [11]
Upon completing medical school, a DO graduate can enter an internship or residency training program, which may be followed by fellowship training. [8] DO graduates attend the same graduate medical education programs as their MD counterparts. [12]
Osteopathy, the older form of osteopathic medicine, began in the United States in 1874. The term "osteopathy" was coined by the physician and surgeon [13] [14] Andrew Taylor Still, who named his new discipline of medicine "osteopathy", reasoning that "the bone, osteon, was the starting point from which [he] was to ascertain the cause of pathological conditions". [15] He founded the American School of Osteopathy (now A.T. Still University of the Health Sciences) in Kirksville, Missouri, for the teaching of osteopathy on May 10, 1892. While the state of Missouri granted the right to award the MD degree, [16] he remained dissatisfied with the limitations of conventional medicine and instead chose to retain the distinction of the DO degree. [17] In 1898 the American Institute of Osteopathy started the Journal of Osteopathy (presently known as the Journal of Osteopathic Medicine [18] ) and by that time four states recognized the profession. [19]
The osteopathic medical profession has evolved into two branches: non-physician manual medicine osteopaths, who were educated and trained outside the United States; and US-trained osteopathic physicians, who conduct a full scope of medical and surgical practice. The regulation of non-physician manual medicine osteopaths varies greatly between jurisdictions. In the United States, osteopathic physicians holding the DO degree have the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities as physicians with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. [9] Osteopathic physicians and non-physician osteopaths are so distinct that in practice they function as separate professions.
As originally conceived by Andrew Still, the letters "DO" stood for "Diplomate in Osteopathy" and the title conferred by the degree was "Doctor of Osteopathy". [20] Subsequently, the degree also came to be entitled "Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine". [21] Since the late 20th century, the AOA has preferred that this title be used exclusively. [22] Its members resolved at a 1960 conference:
Be it resolved, that the American Osteopathic Association institute a policy, both officially in our publications and individually on a conversational basis, to use the terms osteopathic medicine in place of the word osteopathy and osteopathic physician and surgeon in place of osteopath; the words osteopathy and osteopath being reserved for historical, sentimental, and informal discussions only. [23]
A minority of DOs continue to use the old terms, and the American Academy of Osteopathy retains the old usage in its name. [24]
In 2018, there were 114,425 osteopathic medical doctors in the United States and 145,343 total DOs and osteopathic medical students. The proportion of females in the profession has steadily increased since the 1980s. [25] In 1985, about 10 percent of DO physicians were female, compared with 41 percent in 2018. [26] Between 2008 and 2012, 49 percent of new DO graduates were females. [25]
During the 2011–12 academic year, the osteopathic medical student body consisted of: 69 percent white/non-Hispanic, 19 percent Asian or Pacific Islander, 3.5 percent Hispanic, 3 percent African-American, and 0.5 percent Native American or Alaskan. [25] The remainder were listed as "other or not entered". The five-year change in osteopathic medical student enrollment by ethnicity has increased by 19 percent for white/non-Hispanic students, 36 percent for Asian-American students, 24 percent for Black/African American students, and 60 percent for Hispanic/Latino students. [27]
Osteopathic medical school curricula are equivalent to those at schools granting the MD degree. Both US-granted MD and US-granted DO programs are listed in the World Directory of Medical Schools as medical schools. Furthermore, the accreditation agencies for both degrees, LCME and COCA for MD and DO, respectively, are recognized by the World Federation for Medical Education (WFME). [28] Per WFME, "Recognition Status is awarded by WFME to an accrediting agency working to an internationally accepted high standard, and confers the understanding that the quality of accreditation of undergraduate medical schools is to an appropriate and rigorous standard." Once admitted to an osteopathic medical school, students study for four years to graduate. The schooling is divided into the pre-clinical and clinical years. The pre-clinical years, the first and second years, focus on the biomedical and clinical sciences. The clinical years, the third and fourth years, consist of core clinical training and sub-internships in the clinical specialties.
Osteopathic medical school accreditation standards require training in internal medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, pediatrics, family medicine, surgery, psychiatry, emergency medicine, radiology, preventive medicine, and public health. [29] According to Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, "the training, practice, credentialing, licensure, and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of physicians with MD qualifications, with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and board certification". [8]
DO schools provide an additional 300–500 hours in the study of hands-on manual medicine and the body's musculoskeletal system, which is referred to as osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM). [9] Osteopathic manipulation is a pseudoscience. [10]
Before entering osteopathic medical school, an applicant must complete a four-year undergraduate degree and take a national standardized exam called the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT). Some combined undergraduate/medical programs exist. Some authors note the differences in the average MCAT scores and grade point average of students who matriculate at DO schools compared to those who matriculate at MD schools within the United States. In 2021, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering US-based MD programs were 511.5 and 3.73, [30] respectively, and 504.0 and 3.55 for DO matriculants. [31] DO medical schools are more likely to accept non-traditional students, [32] [33] who are older and entering medicine as a second career, or coming from non-science majors.
DO medical students are required to take the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensure Examination (COMLEX-USA), which is sponsored by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME). The COMLEX-USA is a series of three osteopathic medical licensing examinations. The first two Cognitive Evaluations (CEs) of the COMLEX-USA (Level 1 and Level 2) are taken during medical school and are prerequisites for residency programs, consisting of 352 multiple-choice questions (items) each. [34] [35] [36] Finally, COMLEX Level 3 is usually taken during the first year of residency, and consists of 420 multiple-choice questions and 26 Clinical Decision-Making (CDM) cases. [37]
In addition to the COMLEX-USA, DO medical students may choose to sit for United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE), which is sponsored by the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME). [38] This is typically done under specific circumstances, such as when the student desires to enter a residency that may have a historic preference for the USMLE, or if a higher USMLE score would help elevate the student's application to be more competitive. USMLE pass rates for DO and MD students in 2012 are as follows: Step 1: 91% and 94%, Step 2 CK: 96% and 97%, and Step 2 CS: 87% and 97%, respectively (this number may be misleading as only 46 DO students compared to 17,118 MD students were evaluated for Step 2 CS) Step 3: 100% and 95% (this number may be misleading, as only 16 DO students compared to 19,056 MD students, were evaluated for Step 3). [39]
To obtain a license to practice medicine in the United States, osteopathic medical students must pass the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination (COMLEX), [40] the licensure exam administered by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners throughout their medical training. Students are given the option of also taking the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) to apply for certain residency programs that may want USMLE scores in addition to COMLEX scores. [41] Those that have received or are in the process of earning an MD or DO degree are both eligible to sit for the USMLE. [42] Because of their additional training, only DO candidates are eligible to sit for the COMLEX. [41]
In February 2014, the American Osteopathic Association and the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education agreed to unify standard and osteopathic graduate medical education starting in 2020. [43] Before 2020, DOs had the option to attend ACGME residencies or AOA residencies. From 2020, DOs and MDs attend the same ACGME residencies. Upon completion of internship and residency requirements for their chosen medical specialty, holders of the DO may elect to be board certified by either a specialty board (through the American Medical Association's American Board of Medical Specialties) or an osteopathic specialty board (through the American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists certifying boards) or both.
Depending on the state, medical licensure may be issued from a combined board (DO and MD) or a separate board of medical examiners. [44] All of the 70 state medical boards are members of the Federation of State Medical Boards. [45]
Both "DOs and MDs require rigorous study in the field of medicine", [46] with similar entry requirements and curriculum structures that are "largely the same," [42] and both produce graduates who are licensed and accredited as physicians in the United States. [46] Retired US Air Force flight surgeon and MD Harriet Hall, [47] one of the five founding editors of Science-Based Medicine , [48] has written that US Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine "must be distinguished from 'osteopaths', members of a less regulated or unregulated profession that is practiced in many countries" as "[o]steopaths get inferior training" that is not comparable to that undertaken by DOs. [49]
Currently, there are no osteopathic medical programs located outside of the United States that would qualify an individual to practice as an osteopathic physician in the United States. [50] Foreign osteopathic degrees are not recognized by any state in the US or any region else as being equivalent to American DO degrees.
The International Labour Organization (ILO), an agency of the United Nations, issued a letter affirming that US-trained osteopathic physicians are fully licensed physicians who prescribe medication and perform surgery. The acknowledgment draws a clear separation between American DOs, who are medical doctors, and non-physician osteopaths trained outside of the United States. Within the international standards that classify jobs to promote international comparability across occupations, US-trained DOs are now categorized with all other physicians as medical doctors. [51] This event took place in June 2018 and started a relay of events and opened doors for DOs as more countries started to understand and give full recognition to US-trained medical doctors with the DO degree. The Association of Medical Councils of Africa (AMCOA) approved a resolution in 2019 granting the AOA's request that AMCOA recognize US-trained DOs as fully licensed physicians with practice rights equivalent to MDs, opening its 20 member countries, which include Botswana, Eswatini, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe to DOs. [52] (Note: Some of the member African countries of AMCOA had independently licensed DOs before; however, this recognition unifies those who did or did not).
Similarly, on November 9, 2023, during its 15th biennial Members General Assembly in Bali, Indonesia, the International Association of Medical Regulatory Authorities (IAMRA) passed a resolution. This resolution endorses the acknowledgement of U.S.-trained DOs as fully licensed physicians, on par with MDs, across 47 member countries of IAMRA. [53] IAMRA members include the medical councils of the following countries: Albania, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Eswatini, Finland, Germany, Ghana, Grenada, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Oman, Pakistan, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, The Gambia, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. [54] While many of these countries already recognized the DO as a medical degree prior to the convention, it unified many other countries under the umbrella.
Furthermore, DOs may work internationally as physicians and surgeons with any humanitarian organization such as the World Health Organization and Doctors Without Borders. The following is an international licensure summary for US-trained Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine, as listed by the American Osteopathic Association, that shows countries where US DOs have previously applied for licensure (countries not listed are regions with no history of US DOs applying for licensure): [55] [56]
Country | Year of latest policy | Medical practice rights | Requirements for licensure | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 2006 | Unlimited | Foreign physicians must submit credentials to various agencies and then appear before any of the National Universities to have their diploma recognized. | |
Australia | 2013 | Unlimited | According to documents published online, the Medical Board of Australia has "agreed to accept the DO USA as a primary medical qualification for medical registration provided that the DO USA was awarded by a medical school which has been accredited by the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation". [58] | |
Austria | 2009 | Unlimited | Hospital must have position unable to be filled by Austrian physician. | |
Bahamas | 2004 | Unlimited | US license recognized. | |
Bahrain | 2010 | Unlimited | US license recognized. | |
Bangladesh | 2000s | Unlimited | US license recognized. | |
Barbados | 1995 | Limited | Osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM) only. | |
Belize | 2009 | Unlimited | Must complete a Belizean residency for permanent license eligibility. | |
Bermuda | 1997 | Unlimited | Required at least 2 years of GME and examination or interview by the council's Examination Committee. Non-Bermudans must have approval from the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs to work on the island. | |
Botswana | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Brazil | 2007 | Unlimited | Completion of Brazilian board exam, establishing residency and some training in a Brazilian hospital is required. | |
Canada | Alberta | Unlimited | Requires at least 2 years of GME accredited by the ACGME or AOA and must have passed the Universities Coordinating Council Exam, a basic sciences exam, and have passed all three parts of the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada. | |
British Columbia | Unlimited | Requires at least 1 year of GME approved by the AOA or the ACGME, completed at least 1 year of GME in Canada, passed all three parts of the LMCC. | ||
Manitoba | Unlimited | US license recognized. | ||
New Brunswick | Unlimited | Requires at least 2 years of GME approved by the AOA or the ACGME and has passed all 3 parts of the LMCC. Reciprocity pathway for DO physicians with a Maine license. | ||
Newfoundland | Unlimited | The Medical Act 2011 allows full licensure of osteopathic physicians, both for the country's full registry and its educational registry. | ||
NW Territories | Unlimited | US license recognized. | ||
Nova Scotia | Unlimited | Requires a Canadian or ACGME residency. | ||
Ontario | Unlimited | Requires a Canadian or ACGME residency. | ||
Prince Edward Island | Unlimited | |||
Quebec | Unlimited | Requires 1 year of GME approved by the AOA or ACGME, 1 year of GME in Quebec passed the written, oral and clinical board examination of the College of Family Physicians of Canada, and must speak French fluently. | ||
Saskatchewan | Unlimited | |||
Yukon | Unlimited | US license recognized. | ||
Cayman Islands (UK) | 1983 | Unlimited | US license recognized. | |
Central African Republic | 1990 | Unlimited | US licensure and annual attendance at the National Congress for Physicians. | |
Chile | 2008 | Unlimited | A written exam in Spanish is required, besides a series of practical tests involving common procedures (CPR, intubation, lumbar puncture, etc.). | |
China | 2009 | Unlimited | United States DO physicians are permitted to apply for short-term medical practice licensure. | |
Colombia | 1996 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. | |
Costa Rica | 2009 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. | |
Dominican Republic | 2000 | Unlimited | US license & board certification recognized. | |
Ecuador | 1990 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Reciprocity exists in most Latin American countries. | |
Eswatini | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Ethiopia | 2011 | Unlimited | Must renew the license every 5 years. | |
Finland | 1996 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. | |
France | 2009 | Limited | OMM only. The French government does not recognize the full scope of practice of osteopathic medicine. | |
The Gambia | 2011 | Unlimited | ||
Germany | 2008 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Depends on the need. Decisions are made on an individual basis. | |
Ghana | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Greece | 2009 | Unlimited | Greek citizenship is required, unless, in rare instances, there exists a crucial need for certain types of specialist physicians. Further, a work permit must be obtained, a difficult task, and speaking Greek is an unwritten requirement. These are the same requirements as other foreign physicians. | |
Grenada | 2007 | Unlimited | US license recognized. | |
Guyana | 1996 | Unlimited | Case-by-case basis. | |
Honduras | 2009 | Unlimited | Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras must accredit all foreign titles. After accreditation is completed, the applicant must seek registration with the Medical College of Honduras (MCH). | |
Hong Kong | 1998 | Unlimited | Written examination. Personal interview. Training approval. | |
India | 2019 | Unlimited | The DO degree is recognized for full medical and surgical practice. As of 2019, a DO may practice medicine only if he/she did ACGME residencies, which are already recognized by the National Medical Commission. [59] According to the Indian Medical Act of 1956, "Provided further that a person seeking provisional or permanent registration shall not have to qualify the Screening Test if he/she holds an Under Graduate medical qualification from Australia/Canada/New Zealand/United Kingdom/United States of America and the holder thereof also been awarded a Post Graduate medical qualification in Australia/Canada/New Zealand/United Kingdom/United States of America and has been recognized for enrolment as medical practitioner in that country." A US-granted MD and DO satiate the undergraduate aspect of the law. ACGME residencies fulfill the postgraduate clause of the law. The Commission is still deciding on recognizing AOA residencies (applicable to those DO graduates who graduated from AOA residencies before the 2020 AOA-ACGME merger). | |
Indonesia | 1992 | Unlimited and restricted | Foreign physicians affiliated with a university project or a mission have unlimited practice rights. No private practice is allowed. | |
Iran | 2009 | Unlimited | Iranian citizens who have received both the DO degree from a US osteopathic school and are board-certified in a clinical specialty. Osteopathic degrees from other countries are not accepted. The process of evaluation of the medical education and clinical training is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MoHME). | |
Israel | 2007 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Hebrew required. | |
Italy | 2009 | Unlimited | Physicians are discouraged from seeking employment in Italy without firm contracts and work permits. If there is a US state law outlining reciprocity with Italy, a statement to this effect from the Italian Consulate will warrant better chances. | |
Jamaica | 1994 | Limited and restricted | DO physicians were permitted to supply some services while participating in a specific mission project. | |
Jordan | 2012 | Unlimited | ||
Kenya | 2007 | Unlimited | ||
Lebanon | 2004 | Unlimited | AOA letter required. Examination required. | |
Lesotho | 1990s | Unlimited | Applicants must appear before the Medical, Dental, and Pharmacy Council to answer some medical questions and present their credentials. The council will also make a recommendation about where the applicant's skills would be most helpful in the country. | |
Liberia | 1990s | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. | |
Luxembourg | 1987 | Unlimited | The practice of medicine in Luxembourg by a doctor who is not an EU national is very rare. | |
Malta | 2010 | Unlimited | Accepted on a case-by-case basis if the training meets the minimum educational requirements for physicians in the EU (Article 24 of Directive 2005/36/EC). Examination required. | |
Malawi | 1991 | Unlimited | ||
Mauritius | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Mexico | 2011 | Unlimited & Restricted | Yucatán's Health Secretary Alvaro Quijano of the signed a proclamation recognizing US-trained osteopathic physicians in the state of Yucatán; DO physicians may now obtain short-term and long-term licensure through the Health Secretary's office. All other Mexican states require work permits, which are only available in conjunction with the association of a short-term medical mission project. | |
Micronesia | 1993 | Unlimited | Statutes specifically include DOs | |
Namibia | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Nepal | 2008 | Unlimited | Approval by the Nepal Medical Council and a visa from the Immigration Department. | |
Netherlands | 2009 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. | |
New Zealand | 2008 | Unlimited | Hearing required. Case-by-case basis. | |
Nigeria | 2010 | Unlimited | US licensure and completion of specialty training required. | |
Norway | 2009 | Limited | OMM only, but DOs may apply for recognition as medical doctors. [60] | |
Pakistan | 2011 | Unlimited | US osteopathic medical schools meet the Medical and Dental Council's statutory regulations for international medical graduates. The scope is unlimited, but practice setting may be restricted | |
Panama | 2009 | Unlimited | Panamanian citizenship required. | |
Papua New Guinea | 2010 | Unlimited | Work permit required. Short-term or a long-term volunteer service license is also available. | |
Peru | 2011 | Unlimited | Process for licensure is the same as for other IMGs. | |
Poland | 2009 | Unlimited | Examination & Polish required. | |
Qatar | 2011 | Unlimited | Must possess a valid work visa, and pass written and oral examinations. | |
Rwanda | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Russia | 2006 | Unlimited | Foreign physicians make arrangements to practice through Russian sponsors, such as hospitals or businesses. | |
Saint Lucia | 2000 | Unlimited | US credentials recognized. | |
Saudi Arabia | 2009 | Unlimited | Foreign physicians must be recruited by a government agency, a corporation, or a private health care entity, such as a hospital. | |
Seychelles | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Sierra Leone | 1993 | Unlimited | Notarized US credentials recognized. | |
South Africa | 2019 | Unlimited | US degree recognized. The AMCOA recognition of American trained DOs gave full medical and surgical practicing rights to the professionals. Same requirements as foreign physicians. | |
South Sudan | 2019 | Unlimited | ||
Sweden | 2005 | Unlimited | Same requirements as other foreign physicians. Applicants must have their educations evaluated in order to determine if it is equivalent to the Swedish standards. After this, applicants must complete a two-part proficiency exam consisting of theoretical and practical portions. As this test is given in Swedish, applicants must speak Swedish at Level C1 in accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Proficiency in Norwegian or Danish also satisfy the language requirements. A course in Swedish laws and additional clinical training is required upon a passing exam score. Some temporary allowances are made. [61] | |
Taiwan | 2020 | Unlimited | As per licensure, a qualifying candidate graduated from the department of medicine in a foreign university or independent college recognized by the R.O.C. Ministry of Education. [62] All US issued DO medical degree programs are recognized by the R.O.C. Ministry of Education, since United States DO physicians are permitted to apply for medical practice licensure in R.O.C. since 2009. | |
Tanzania | 1985 | Unlimited | US license and GME recognized. Temporary work permits are available. | |
Uganda | 2008 | Unlimited | ||
United Arab Emirates | 2009 | Unlimited | Examination required. | |
United Kingdom | 2005 | Unlimited | US-trained DO physicians are eligible for full medical practice rights. Applicants must pass the PLAB examination and work for one year in the National Health Service. Following that year, the applicants will be able to apply for a license to practice privately. For GMC registration as a specialist, postgraduate training will need to be separately recognized by the Postgraduate Medical Education and Training Board (PMETB). GOsC registration is also required. | |
Venezuela | 2007 | Unlimited | Recognized status under the law of the practice of medicine. | |
Vietnam | 1995 | Unlimited | Foreign physicians can fill vacancies in hospitals that need certain specialists. | |
Zambia | 2009 | Unlimited | US licensure required. | |
Zimbabwe | 2019 | Unlimited | The AMCOA recognition of American trained DOs gave full medical and surgical practicing rights to the professionals. Same requirements as foreign physicians. | |
OMM: Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine |
Osteopathy, unlike osteopathic medicine, which is a branch of the medical profession in the United States, is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine that emphasizes physical manipulation of the body's muscle tissue and bones. In most countries, practitioners of osteopathy are not medically trained and are referred to as osteopaths.
Osteopathic medicine is a branch of the medical profession in the United States that promotes the practice of science-based medicine, often referred to in this context as allopathic medicine, with a set of philosophy and principles set by its earlier form, osteopathy. Osteopathic physicians (DOs) are graduates of American osteopathic medical colleges and are licensed to practice the full scope of medicine and surgery in all 50 U.S. states. The field is distinct from osteopathic practices offered in nations outside of the U.S.—in which practitioners are generally considered neither parts of core medical staff nor of medicine itself; rather, they are considered alternative medicine practitioners. The other major branch of medicine in the United States is referred to by practitioners of osteopathic medicine as allopathic medicine.
Doctor of Medicine is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. This generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the M.D. degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.) was used and eventually in the 19th century became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the M.D. is a research doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree (Bachelor's/Master's/Doctoral) in medicine. In those countries, the equivalent professional degree to the North American, and some others' usage of M.D. is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery.
A Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery is a medical degree granted by medical schools or universities in countries that adhere to the United Kingdom's higher education tradition. Despite the historical distinction in nomenclature, these degrees are typically combined and conferred together. This degree is usually awarded as an undergraduate degree, but it can also be awarded at graduate-level medical institutions. The typical duration for completion is five to six years.
The United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) is a three-step examination program for medical licensure in the United States sponsored by the Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) and the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME). Physicians with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree are required to pass the USMLE for medical licensure. However, those with a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree (DO) are required to take the COMLEX-USA (COMLEX) exams but may also sit for the USMLE as well.
Step 2 Clinical Skills of the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) was an exam administered to medical students/graduates who wish to become licensed physicians in the U.S. It is similar to the COMLEX-USA Level 2-PE exam, taken by osteopathic medical students/graduates who seek licensure as physicians in the U.S. For US medical students, the exam fee is $1,300. For medical students at non-US medical schools, the tests cost is higher—currently $1,535. These fees do not include costs associated with travel and lodging to take the test. Historically, US students have taken Step 2 CS late in their senior year, prior to graduation. However, now that more residency programs require students to record a passing score, many US medical schools recommend students take Step 2 CS in the fall of their senior year.
The American Osteopathic Association (AOA) is the representative member organization for the more than 176,000 osteopathic medical doctors (D.O.s) and osteopathic medical students in the United States. The AOA is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and is involved in post-graduate training for osteopathic physicians. Beginning in 2015, it began accrediting post-graduate education as a committee within the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, creating a unified accreditation system for all DOs and MDs in the United States. The organization promotes public health, encourages academic scientific research, serves as the primary certifying body for D.O.s overseeing 18 certifying boards, and is the accrediting agency for osteopathic medical schools through its Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation. As of October 2015, the AOA no longer owns the Healthcare Facilities Accreditation Program (HFAP), which accredited hospitals and other health care facilities.
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine (PCOM) is a private medical school with its main campus in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and additional locations in Suwanee, Georgia and Moultrie, Georgia.
The Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination of the United States (COMLEX-USA) is a series of three osteopathic medical licensing examinations administered by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME) similar to the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). COMLEX-USA is the most common pathway by which osteopathic physicians (D.Os) apply for medical licensure, and is accepted in all 50 states. The 3-digit standard scores of COMLEX-USA Level 1, Level 2- Cognitive Evaluation (CE), and Level 3 have a range of 9-999 and a mean of 500. Most candidates score between 250 and 800. 400 is the minimum passing score for COMLEX-USA Levels 1 and 2; 350 for COMLEX-USA Level 3. It was announced on January 24, 2022, that the COMLEX-USA Level 1 examination will be moving from a 3-digit numeric score to solely pass/fail beginning on May 10, 2022.
Medical University of the Americas (MUA) is a private for-profit offshore medical school in Charlestown, Nevis. It is owned by R3 Education, Inc. which also owns St. Matthew's University and Saba University School of Medicine MUA confers upon its graduates the Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree.
Medical school in the United States is a graduate program with the purpose of educating physicians in the undifferentiated field of medicine. Such schools provide a major part of the medical education in the United States. Most medical schools in the US confer upon graduates a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree, while some confer a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree. Most schools follow a similar pattern of education, with two years of classroom and laboratory based education, followed by two years of clinical rotations in a teaching hospital where students see patients in a variety of specialties. After completion, graduates must complete a residency before becoming licensed to practice medicine.
Most physicians in the United States hold either the Doctor of Medicine degree (MD) or the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree (DO). Institutions awarding the MD are accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME). Institutions awarding the DO are accredited by the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation (COCA). The World Directory of Medical Schools lists both LCME accredited MD programs and COCA accredited DO programs as US medical schools. Foreign-trained osteopaths do not hold DO degrees and are not recognized as physicians in the United States or in other jurisdictions.
The New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine (NYIT-COM) is a private medical school located primarily in Old Westbury, New York. It also has a degree-granting campus in Jonesboro, Arkansas. Founded in 1977, NYIT-COM is an academic division of the New York Institute of Technology. Formerly the New York College of Osteopathic Medicine, it is one of the largest medical schools in the United States. As of 2023, the NYIT College of Osteopathic Medicine has a 100 percent match rate, with all members of the Class of 2023 placed into residencies, and U.S. News & World Report ranks the NYIT College of Osteopathic Medicine #49 among medical schools in the United States with the most graduates practicing primary care.
Osteopathic Physicians & Surgeons v. California Medical Association, 224 Cal. App. 2d 378 was a legal case between two medical associations in the state of California. The case was under review in California state courts from 1962-1964. After numerous appeals, the California Supreme Court ruling found the California Medical Association's refusal to grant osteopathic physicians licensure to practice medicine in the state of California to be unconstitutional.
The Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) of the United States is a national non-profit organization that represents the 71 state medical and osteopathic boards of the United States and its territories and co-sponsors the United States Medical Licensing Examination. Medical boards license physicians, investigate complaints, discipline those who violate the law, conduct physician evaluations, and facilitate the rehabilitation of physicians where appropriate. The FSMB's mission calls for "continual improvement in the quality, safety and integrity of health care through the development and promotion of high standards for physician licensure and practice."
Humayun Javaid Chaudhry, D.O., MACP, FRCP (Lon.), FRCP (Edin.) is an American physician and medical educator who is president and chief executive officer of the Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) of the United States, a national non-profit organization founded in 1912 that represents the 70 state medical boards of the United States and its territories and which co-sponsors the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). From 2007 to 2009, he served as Commissioner of Health Services for Suffolk County, New York, the state's most populous county outside New York City. In 2016, he was listed by Modern Healthcare magazine as one of the 50 Most Influential Physician Executives and Leaders.
Osteopathic medicine in Canada is similar to conventional medicine in Canada, with the addition of osteopathic manipulation to diagnose and treat patients. Osteopathic physicians hold equal practice rights to non-osteopathic physicians (MDs) in Canada. North American osteopathic medicine requires an osteopathic physician to be trained and receive the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree granted by a College of Osteopathic Medicine accredited by the American Osteopathic Association.
The College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific (COMP) is a private, non-profit medical school for osteopathic medicine located in downtown Pomona, in the U.S. state of California. The college opened in 1977 as the only osteopathic medical school west of the Rocky Mountains. COMP was the founding program of Western University of Health Sciences (WesternU), which now has 8 colleges in addition to COMP, each offering professional degrees in various fields of healthcare. COMP has a single 4-year program, conferring the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree. Graduates are eligible to practice medicine in all 50 states and more than 85 countries.
Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine (CCOM) is the medical school of Midwestern University in Downers Grove, Illinois. CCOM grants the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine D.O. academic degree and is accredited by the American Osteopathic Association's Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation (COCA).
California Health Sciences University (CHSU) is a private, for-profit university located in Clovis, California. Founded in 2012, the school operates three academic programs, two of which offer doctoral degrees (in pharmacy and osteopathic medicine), and the third offers a masters degree in science. Graduates of the College of Pharmacy (COP) will receive the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm D) degree, graduates of the College of Osteopathic Medicine (COM) will receive the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree, and graduates of the College of Biosciences and Health Professions (CBHP) will receive the Masters of Science in Biomedical Sciences (MSBS) degree.