The Kalachuris of Tripuri (IAST: Kalacuri), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kalachuris of Mahishmati. Their core territory included the historical Chedi region (also known as Dahala-mandala), and their capital was located at Tripuri (present-day Tewar near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh).
The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, although one theory connects them to the Kalachuris of Mahishmati. By the 10th century, the Kalachuris of Tripuri had consolidated their power by raiding neighbouring territories and by fighting wars with the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand and the Kingdom of Malwa. They also had matrimonial relations with the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
In the 1030s, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja after achieving military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers. The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of his son Lakshmikarna (1041-1073 CE), who assumed the imperial title Chakravartin after military campaigns against several neighbouring kingdoms. He also controlled a part of the Malwa and Bundelkhand kingdoms for a brief period.
The dynasty gradually declined after Lakshmikarna, whose successors lost control of their northern territories to the Gahadavalas. Trailokyamalla, the last known ruler of the dynasty, ruled at least until 1212 CE, but it is not certain how and when his reign ended. In the later half of the 13th century, the former Kalachuri territories came under the control of Malwa and Bundelkhand, and ultimately under the Delhi Sultanate. A branch of the dynasty, the Kalachuris of Ratnapura, ruled at Ratnapura (now Ratanpur) in present-day Chhattisgarh.
Origins
The Kalachuris of Tripuri alternatively called themselves Haihayas in some of their records: the earliest such records are the Bilahari stone inscriptions of Yuvaraja-deva II.[2] The dynasty traced its ancestry to the legendary lunar dynasty, claiming descent from the legendary Haihaya ruler Kartavirya Arjuna, who ruled from Mahishmati.[2] This claim occurs in several Kalachuri inscriptions, including the Gyaraspur inscription of prince Valleka (a son of Kokalla I),[3] the Varanasi inscription of Karna, and the Khairha inscription of Yashahkarna. Some of these inscriptions, such as the Khairha inscription, trace Kartavirya's ancestry to Chandra (the moon deity) through the Pauravas and Bharata.[4] According to the 12th century poem Prithviraja Vijaya, the dynasty descended from Kartavirya Arjuna through one Sahasika ("courageous"), who was a maternal ancestor of the poem's hero Prithviraja III. The poem also traces Kartavirya's mythical ancestry to Chandra, through his son Budha (the mercury).[5]
Historian V. V. Mirashi theorizes that the Kalachuris of Tripuri descended from the Kalachuris of Mahishmati, who ruled in the west-central India during 6th-7th centuries. According to this theory, after facing setbacks against the Chalukyas in the south, the Kalachuris expanded their power in the north; amid the political chaos after the decline of Harsha's empire, Buddharaja's successor Vamaraja established himself at Kalanjara in the late 7th century, and finally moved to Tripuri.[6][7] Because of their rule over the Dahala or Chedi region, the family came to be known as the Kalachuris of Dahala and the Chaidyas ("[lords] of the Chedi country").[6]
However, there is no concrete evidence that conclusively proves that the two dynasties were related.[6] No extant records of the Mahishmati dynasty describe them as "Haihayas", although records of their neighbours - the Chalukyas - refer to them by this name.[8]
History
The Karna temple at Amarkantak, built by Lakshmikarna
Little is known about the earliest rulers of the dynasty, who find mentions in the inscriptional genealogies. The earliest extant inscriptions of the dynasty have been discovered at Chhoti Deori and Sagar. These inscriptions are from the reign of Shankaragana I, and have been dated to the 8th century CE.[9]
As Rashtrakuta and Pratihara feudatories
The Karitalai inscription of Lakshmanaraja I (825-850 CE) eulogizes a Rashtrakuta king (whose name is lost), and mentions the defeat of one Nagabhata (presumably the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II). This suggests that during this time, the Kalachuris were subordinate to their southern neighbours - the Rashtrakuta emperors, and fought against their northern neighbours - the Pratihara emperors. They had multiple marital connections to the Rashtrakutas. However, by the time of Lakshmanaraja's son or grandson Kokalla I (r. c. 850-890 CE), they had shifted their allegiance to the Pratiharas.[10]
Kokalla I appears to have been the first powerful ruler of the dynasty, as he finds regular mentions in the genealogies of the later Kalachuri rulers. According to the Ratnapura Kalachuri inscriptions, he had 18 sons, the eldest of whom succeeded him on the throne, while the others became provincial governors. The number 18 probably should not be taken literally in this context, as it was considered an auspicious number, and in this context, may have been used to indicate that Kokalla had many sons. The eldest son was presumably Shankaragana II, whom modern scholars identify with the person mentioned by the names "Prasiddha-dhavala", "Mugdha-tunga", and "Rana-vigraha" in various sources. Of the other sons, an unnamed prince became the progenitor of the Ratnapura branch. Other sons of Kokalla I included Arjuna, who is mentioned in Rashtrakuta inscriptions; and Valleka or Vallavati, who is known by his Gyaraspur inscription.[11]
Valleka's inscription states that he was a son of queen Nata, who can be identified with the Chandela princess "Natta" mentioned as a wife of Kokalla in the Varanasi inscription of the later ruler Karna.[12] Valleka appears to have been the last (or one of the last) Kalachuri governor of the area around Gyaraspur, which subsequently became a part of the Chandela territory.[13] The inscription states that Valleka served king Bhoja, who is described as the ruler of the earth, and mentions that Valleka defeated several other kings in Bhoja's service.[14] King Bhoja can be identified with the Gurjara-Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja, who is also mentioned in other Kalachuri inscriptions. These other inscriptions include the Bilhari inscription, which describes Bhoja as one of the "pillars of glory" erected by Kokalla I; and the Varanasi inscription, which describes Bhoja as a recipient of Kokalla's protection. The descriptions in these two inscriptions had led earlier scholars to believe that Kokalla subjugated Bhoja, but Valleka's inscription suggests that the Kalachuris were subordinate to the Pratihara emperor Bhoja.[15]
Based on Valleka's inscription, epigraphist Richard G. Salomon theorizes that Kokalla I was a subordinate of Bhoja, and played an important role in expanding the south-eastern borders of the Pratihara empire.[16] His submission to Bhoja may have been nominal, and he appears to have laid the foundation of Kalachuri empire by expanding his own sphere of influence in the southern part of the Pratihara empire.[10] The later Kalachuri inscriptions greatly exaggerate Kokalla's glory, and use wording that plays down the subordinate position of the Kalachuris.[17]
Early sovereigns
After the decline of the Rashtrakuta and Pratihara empires, the Kalachuris assumed independence, probably during the reign of Yuvaraja-deva I (915-945 CE).[10]
Shankaragana III, who ascended the Kalachuri throne around 970 CE, adopted an aggressive expansion policy. He defeated the contemporary Gurjara-Pratihara king, who was probably Vijayapala. He probably died in a battle against the Chandelas.[18] Shankaragana was succeeded by his younger brother Yuvarajadeva II, who established matrimonial relations with the Kalyani Chalukya ruler Tailapa II.[19] The Malwa kingMunja, who was an enemy of Tailapa, invaded the Kalachuri kingdom and raided their capital Tripuri.[20] After the death of Yuvarajadeva II, the ministers placed his son Kokalla II on the throne.[21]
According to the Gurgi inscription of Kokalla, three neighbouring kings were afraid of him: the Gurjara king (possibly the weak Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Rajyapala), the Gauda king (the Pala ruler Mahipala), and the Kuntala king (the Kalayani Chalukya king Vikramaditya V). These claims suggest that Kokalla raided the territories of these kings.[21]
Gangeyadeva, the son and successor of Kokalla II, ascended the throne around 1015 CE.[22] During the early part of his reign, he served as a vassal to another king, possibly the Malwa king Bhoja.[23] He fought a war against the Chalukyas of Kalyani, possibly as a vassal of Bhoja. The triple alliance of Bhoja, Gangeyadeva and Rajendra Chola engaged the Chalukya king Jayasimha II at multiple frontiers.[24] Both Kalachuri and Chalukya inscriptions claim success in this war: it appears that Gangeyadeva and his allies were repulsed after achieving some initial successes.[22]
Bhoja defeated Gangeyadeva in a war, but there is some uncertainty regarding the exact chronology. According to one theory, Bhoja defeated Gangeyadeva before the anti-Chalukya campaign, in which Gangeyadeva fought as a Malwa vassal.[23] Another theory is that the two turned enemies after their campaign against the Chalukyas.[25]
Dancing Ganesha, Madhya Pradesh, Kalacuri, 10th century CE.
Expansion
Gold coin of king Gangeyadeva (c. 1015–1041) of the Kalachuris of Tripuri. Obverse: Lakshmi seated. Reverse: "Śrimad Gangeya Devah" in three lines.
In the 1030s, Gangeyadeva achieved military successes at his eastern and northern frontiers, and assumed the titles of a sovereign emperor.[27] In the east, he raided Utkala, assisted by his Ratnapura vassals. The Kalachuris probably defeated the Bhauma-Kara king Shubhakara II in this war.[22] Gangeyadeva also seems to have fought an inconclusive war against Yayati, the Somavanshi ruler of Dakshina Kosala.[22]
In the north, Gangeyadeva expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Chandelas, who had been weakened by Ghaznavid invasions.[28] He suffered a defeat against the Chandela king Vijayapala,[29] but ultimately extended his control over the sacred cities of Varanasi and Prayaga.[27] During his reign, the Ghaznavid general Ahmad Niyaltigin raided Varanasi in 1033 CE.[30]
Gangeyadeva's successor Lakshmikarna (r. c. 1041-1073 CE), was the most noted military commander of the dynasty. He assumed the title Chakravartin after several successful campaigns against his neighbours. In the east, he invaded Anga and Vanga (modern Bengal).[31] In Vanga, he defeated a Chandra king, possibly Govindachandra.[31] Later, Lakshmikarna also invaded the Pala-ruled Gauda region.[32] His invasion was repulsed by Nayapala. The Tibetan accounts suggest that the Buddhist monk Atisha negotiated a peace treaty between the two kings.[33] Lakshmikarna also seems to have raided Gauda during the reign of Nayapala's successor Vigrahapala III. The two kings ultimately concluded a peace treaty, with Lakshmikarna's daughter Yuvanashri marrying the Pala king.[32]
In the mid-1050s, Lakshmikarna and Bhima allied against the Mala king Bhoja. The two attacked the kingdom of Malwa simultaneously from opposite directions.[32] According to the 14th century chronicler Merutunga, Bhoja died just as the two kings attacked Malwa. Lakshmikarna seized the Malwa kingdom, prompting Bhima to launch an expedition to recover his share of the war spoils.[32] Within a short time, Lakshmikarna lost the control of Malwa to Bhoja's successor Jayasimha, who received help from the Kalyani Chalukya prince Vikramaditya VI[32] Subsequently, Karna allied with Vikramaditya's rival and brother Someshvara II, and again invaded Malwa. However, the two were forced to retreat by Bhoja's brother Udayaditya.[34]
Lakshmikarna also subjugated the Chandela king Devavarman (r. c. 1050-1060 CE), who seems to have died in a battle against him.[32] He seems to have retained control of a large part of the Chandela territory for over a decade, before being ousted by Devavarman's successor Kirttivarman in the 1070s CE.[32]
Yashahkarna's son Gayakarna married a granddaughter of the Malwa king Udayaditya, which led to peace between the two kingdoms.[38] However, he seems to have suffered reverses against the Chandela king Madanavarman.[39] The Kalachuris of Ratnapura, who had earlier served as vassals of the Tripuri Kalachuris, declared their independence during Gayakarna's reign. Gayakarna unsuccessfully tried to reduce them to submission.[38]
Gayakarna's son Narasimha recovered the territories lost to Madanavarman. Narasimha seems to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha.[38] Jayasimha suffered a defeat against the Chandela king Paramardi. He also sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Ratnapura Kalachuris to reduce them to submission.[40]
During the reign of Jayasimha's successor Vijayasimha, a northern feudatory named Sallakshana unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Kalachuri suzerainty.[41] Vijayasimha's successor Trailokyamalla is known to have ruled at least until 1212 CE. He claimed the title "Lord of Kanyakubja", but in absence of any corroborative evidence, it cannot be said with certainty if he actually captured Kanyakubja.[41]
Shaivism is the predominant faith referred to in the Tripuri Kalachuri inscriptions.[43] Several Shaiva leaders (acharya) served as royal preceptors (rajaguru) to Kalachuri kings; these included Purusha-shiva (to Yashahkarna), Shakti-shiva (to Gayakarna), Kirti-shiva (to Narasimha), and Vimala-shiva (to Jayasimha).[44]Gangeyadeva installed a Shivalinga at Piawan,[31] and his son Lakshmikarna built the Karna-meru temple at Varanasi, which was probably dedicated to Shiva. Yashahkarna is said to have worshipped at the Shiva temple in Draksharama during an invasion of the Andhra region.[37] The patronage of Gayakarna's queen Alhanadevi led to the rise of Pashupata Shaivite religious leaders in the Kalachuri kingdom.[38]
The Gyaraspur inscription of Kokalla I's son Valleka, which records the foundation of a Jain temple by the prince, prominently features Shaivite imagery and wording, with Vaishnavite overtones.[43] Since this inscription is the only Jain-affiliated record of the dynasty, it is not clear if such syncretistic tendency was a feature of Jainism practised in the Kalachuri territory, or if the inscription is a one-off case.[45] The temple mentioned in the inscription may be the present-day Maladevi temple, which features a mixture of Jain and Brahmanical iconography.[46]
The Pratihara dynasty, also called the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Pratiharas of Kannauj or the Imperial Pratiharas, was a prominent medieval Indian dynasty which ruled over the Kingdom of Kannauj. It initially ruled the Gurjaradesa until its victory in the Tripartite Struggle in 816 which secured its right to the throne of Kannauj. Cadet branches of the dynasty ruled other minor states in the subcontinent.
Bhoja was King of Malwa from 1010 until his death in 1055. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all his neighbours in attempts to extend his kingdom, with varying degrees of success. At its zenith, his empire extended from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
The House of Paramara was a prominent Indian Rajput dynasty that ruled over the Kingdom of Malwa, the Garhwal Kingdom, and many other kingdoms, princely states and feudal estates in North India. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs.
Jagadeva, also known as Jagaddeva or Jagdev Parmar, was an 11th-12th century prince from the Paramara dynasty of central India. He is known from an inscription discovered at Jainad and some folk legends. His political status is uncertain, although according to one theory, he may have been a vassal of the Western Chalukyas.
The 11th century Paramara king Bhoja ruled from his capital at Dhara. The period of his reign is dated approximately 1010 CE to 1055 CE, although some historians believe that he ascended the throne before 1010 CE. Bhoja inherited a kingdom centered around the Malwa region, and made several attempts to expand it varying results. He managed to annex territories as far as northern parts of Konkan, but these territorial gains were short-lived. He fought wars against several of his neighbours, including the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Lata, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti, the Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior, the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, the Chahamanas of Naddula, and the Kalachuris of Tripuri. He also conflicted with Gaznavid Turk Invaders, Mahmud's desecration of the Somnath temple in Gujarat motivated Bhoja to lead an army against him, however after Somnath raid, Mahmud Gazhnavi chose a more dangerous route via Sindh, to avoid facing the invading powerful armies of Bhoja.
Jayasimha was the ruler of the Kingdom of Malwa in central India. He was the successor, and possibly the son, of the dynasty's most powerful king Bhoja. He appears to have ascended the throne with the support of the Kalyani Chalukya prince Vikramaditya VI, and appears to have been dethroned by Vikramaditya's rival brother Someshvara II.
The Kalachuris of Mahismati, or the Early Kalachuris, were an early medieval Indian dynasty that ruled present-day Maharashtra, as well as parts of mainland Gujarat and southern Madhya Pradesh. Their capital was located at Mahishmati. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the earliest of the Ellora and Elephanta cave monuments were built during the Kalachuri rule.
Shankaragana III was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. He defeated a weak Gurjara-Pratihara ruler, and seems to have died in a battle against the Chandelas.
Yuvarajadeva II was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. He established matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas of Kalyani, and was defeated by their rival, the Paramara king Munja.
Kokalla II was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. His Gurgi inscription suggests that he raided the territories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Palas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Gangeyadeva was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
Lakshmikarna, also known as Karna, was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
Yashahkarna was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
Gayakarna was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
Narasimha was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
Jayasimha was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. He unsuccessfully tried to assert his authority over the Kalachuris of Ratnapura, and seems to have suffered a defeat against the Chandelas.
Kokalla I was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. He appears to have been the first powerful ruler of the dynasty. He consolidated his kingdom and maintained matrimonial relations with the Rashtrakuta empire, and Chandela dynasty.
The Kalachuris of Sarayupara were a medieval Indian dynasty who ruled along the banks of the Sarayu river in present-day Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Their domain consisted of the present-day Bahraich, Champaran, and Gonda districts.
The Kingdom of Gujarat was an early medieval kingdom in Western India. The kingdom was ruled by two related dynasties, the Chaulukyas and the Vaghelas, for a period of nearly four centuries and was ultimately conquered by the Delhi Sultanate as the Gujarat Province.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
