Ketamine in society and culture

Last updated

Ketamine has had a wide variety of medicinal and recreational uses since its discovery in 1962.

Contents

Generic names

Ketamine is the English generic name of the drug and its INN Tooltip International Nonproprietary Name and BAN Tooltip British Approved Name, while ketamine hydrochloride is its USAN Tooltip United States Adopted Name, USP Tooltip United States Pharmacopeia, BANM Tooltip British Approved Name, and JAN Tooltip Japanese Accepted Name. [1] [2] [3] Its generic name in Spanish and Italian and its DCIT Tooltip Denominazione Comune Italiana are ketamina, in French and its DCF Tooltip Dénomination Commune Française are kétamine, in German is Ketamin, and in Latin is ketaminum. [2]

The S(+) stereoisomer of ketamine is known as esketamine , and this is its BAN Tooltip British Approved Name while esketamine hydrochloride is its BANM Tooltip British Approved Name. [4]

Brand names

Ketamine is sold throughout the world primarily under the brand name Ketalar. [2] [3] It is also marketed under a variety of other brand names, including Calypsol, Ketamin, Ketamina, Ketamine, Ketaminol, Ketanest, Ketaset, Tekam, and Vetalar among others. [2] [3]

Esketamine is sold mainly under the brand names Ketanest, Ketanest-S, and Spravato. [4]

Ketamine clinics

After the publication of the NIH-run antidepressant clinical trial, clinics began opening in which the intravenous ketamine is given for depression. [5] [6] This practice is an off label use of IV ketamine in the United States, though the intranasal version of esketamine has been approved by the FDA for treatment of depression [5] [7] In 2015 there were about 60 such clinics in the US; the procedure was not covered by insurance, and people paid between $400 and $1700 out of pocket for a treatment. [8] It was estimated in 2018 that there were approximately 300 of these clinics. [9] The number of clinics has been increasing rapidly. [9]

A chain of such clinics in Australia, run by Aura Medical Corporation, was closed down by regulatory authorities in 2015. They found that the clinics' marketing was not supported by scientific research and the chain sent patients home with ketamine and needles to administer infusions to themselves. [10]

While ketamine is legally marketed in many countries worldwide, [2] it is also a controlled substance in many countries. [11]

Australia

In Australia, ketamine is listed as a schedule 8-controlled drug under the Poisons Standard (October 2015). [12] Schedule 8 drugs are outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which should be available for use but require restriction of manufacture, supply, distribution, possession and use to reduce abuse, misuse and physical or psychological dependence." [13]

Canada

In Canada, ketamine has been classified since 2005 as a Schedule I narcotic. [14]

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, since 2000, ketamine has been regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. It can be used legally only by health professionals, for university research purposes, or with a physician's prescription. [15] [16]

Taiwan

By 2002, ketamine was classified as class III in Taiwan; given the recent rise of its prevalence in East Asia, however, rescheduling into class I or II is being considered. [17] [18]

India

In December 2013, the government of India, in response to rising recreational use and the use of ketamine as a date rape drug, has added it to Schedule X of the Drug and Cosmetics Act, requiring a special license for sale and maintenance for two years of records of all sales. [19] [20]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, it became labeled a Class C drug on 1 January 2006. [17] [21] On 10 December 2013, the UK Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) recommended that the government reclassify ketamine to become a Class B drug. [22] On 12 February 2014 the Home Office announced it would follow this advice "in light of the evidence of chronic harms associated with ketamine use, including chronic bladder and other urinary tract damage". [23] [24]

The UK Minister of State for Crime Prevention, Norman Baker, responding to the ACMD's advice, said the issue of ketamine's rescheduling for medical and veterinary use would be addressed "separately to allow for a period of consultation". [23]

United States

Because of the increase in recreational use, ketamine was placed in Schedule III of the United States Controlled Substance Act in August 1999. [25]

Recreational use

Ketamine solution poured onto glass and left to dry Ketamine Crystals.jpg
Ketamine solution poured onto glass and left to dry

Recreational use of ketamine was documented in the early 1970s in underground literature (e.g., The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers ). [26] It was used in psychiatric and other academic research through the 1970s, culminating in 1978 with the publishing of psychonaut John Lilly's The Scientist, and Marcia Moore and Howard Alltounian's Journeys into the Bright World, which documented the unusual phenomenology of ketamine intoxication. [27] The incidence of non-medical ketamine use increased through the end of the century, especially in the context of raves and other parties. [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] Its emergence as a club drug differs from other club drugs (e.g., MDMA), however, due to its anesthetic properties (e.g., slurred speech, immobilization) at higher doses; [32] in addition, reports are common of ketamine being sold as "ecstasy". [33] In the 1993 book E for Ecstasy [34] (about the uses of the street drug Ecstasy in the UK), the writer, activist, and ecstasy advocate Nicholas Saunders highlighted test results showing that certain consignments of the drug also contained ketamine. Consignments of ecstasy known as "strawberry" contained what Saunders described as a "potentially dangerous combination of ketamine, ephedrine, and selegiline", as did a consignment of "Sitting Duck" ecstasy tablets. [35]

The use of ketamine as part of a "post-clubbing experience" has also been documented. [36] Ketamine's rise in the dance culture was most rapid in Hong Kong by the end of the 1990s. [32]

Ketamine use as a recreational drug has been implicated in deaths globally, with more than 90 deaths in England and Wales in the years of 2005–2013. [37] They include accidental poisonings, drownings, traffic accidents, and suicides. [37] The majority of deaths were among young people. [38] This has led to increased regulation (e.g., upgrading ketamine from a Class C to a Class B banned substance in the U.K.). [39]

Unlike the other well-known dissociatives phencyclidine (PCP) and dextromethorphan (DXM), ketamine is very short-acting. It takes effect within about 10 minutes, [40] while its hallucinogenic effects last 60 minutes when insufflated or injected, and up to two hours when ingested orally. [41]

At subanesthetic doses—under-dosaged from a medical point of view—ketamine produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world which is known as depersonalization and derealization. [42] At sufficiently high doses, users may experience what is called the "K-hole", a state of dissociation with visual and auditory hallucinations. [43] John C. Lilly, Marcia Moore, D. M. Turner and David Woodard (amongst others) have written extensively about their own entheogenic use of, and psychonautic experiences with, ketamine. [44] Turner died prematurely due to drowning during presumed unsupervised ketamine use. [45] In 2006 the Russian edition of Adam Parfrey's Apocalypse Culture II was banned and destroyed by authorities owing to its inclusion of an essay by Woodard about the entheogenic use of, and psychonautic experiences with, ketamine. [46] : 288–295 

Because of its ability to cause confusion and amnesia, ketamine has been used for date rape. [40] [47]

Slang terms

Production for recreational use has been traced to 1967, when it was referred to as "mean green" and "rockmesc". [48] Recreational names for ketamine include "Special K", [49] "K", [50] [49] "Kitty", "Ket", [51] "K2", [50] "Vitamin K", [49] [51] "Super K", [49] "Jet", [49] [52] "Super acid", [49] "Mauve", [49] "Special LA coke", [49] "Purple", [49] "Cat Valium", [52] [53] "Keller", [53] "Kelly's Day", [53] "New ecstasy", [54] "Psychedelic heroin", [54] "bump", [55] "Majestic". [56] A mixture of ketamine with cocaine is called "Calvin Klein" or "CK1". [57] In Hong Kong, where illicit use of the drug is popular, ketamine is colloquially referred to as "kai-jai". [32]

Usage

North America

According to the ongoing Monitoring the Future study conducted by University of Michigan, prevalence rates of recreational ketamine use among American secondary school students (grades 8, 10, and 12) have varied between 0.8 and 2.5% since 1999, with recent rates at the lower end of this range. [58] The 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reports a rate of 0.1% for persons ages 12 or older with the highest rate (0.2%) in those ages 18–25. [59] Further, 203,000 people are estimated to have used ketamine in 2006, and an estimated 2.3 million people used ketamine at least once in their life. [59] A total of 529 emergency department visits in 2009 were ketamine-related. [60]

In 2003, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration conducted Operation TKO, a probe into the quality of ketamine being imported from Mexico. [61] As a result of operation TKO, U.S. and Mexican authorities shut down the Mexico City company Laboratorios Ttokkyo, which was the biggest producer of ketamine in Mexico. According to the DEA, over 80% of ketamine seized in the United States is of Mexican origin. As of 2011, it was mostly shipped from places like India, as cheap in cost as $5/gram. [61] The World Health Organization Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, in its thirty-third report (2003), [62] recommended research into ketamine's recreational use due to growing concerns about its rising popularity in Europe, Asia, and North America.

Europe

Cases of ketamine use in club venues have been observed in the Czech Republic, France, Italy, Hungary, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. [63] Additional reports of use and dependence have been reported in Poland and Portugal. [64] [65]

Australia

Australia's 2019 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report shows a prevalence of recent ketamine use of 0.3% in 2004, 0.2% in 2007 and 2010, 0.4% in 2016 and 0.9% in 2019 in persons aged 14 or older. [66]

Asia

In China, the small village of Boshe in eastern Guangdong was confirmed as a main production centre in 2013 when it was raided. [67]

Established by the Hong Kong Narcotics Division of the Security Bureau, the Central Registry of Drug Abuse (CRDA) maintains a database of all the illicit drug users who have come into contact with law enforcement, treatment, health care, and social organizations. The compiled data are confidential under The Dangerous Drugs Ordinance of Hong Kong, and statistics are made freely available online on a quarterly basis. [68] [69] Statistics from the CRDA show that the number of ketamine users (all ages) in Hong Kong has increased from 1605 (9.8% of total drug users) in 2000 to 5212 (37.6%) in 2009. [70] Increasing trends of ketamine use among illicit drug users under the age of 21 were also reported, rising from 36.9% of young drug users in 2000 to 84.3% in 2009. [70]

A survey conducted among school-attending Taiwanese adolescents reported prevalence rates of 0.15% in 2004, 0.18% in 2005, and 0.15% in 2006 in middle-school (grades 7 and 9) students; in Taiwanese high-school (grades 10 and 12) students, prevalence was 1.13% in 2004, 0.66% in 2005, and 0.44% in 2006. [71] From the same survey, a large portion (42.8%) of those who reported ecstasy use also reported ketamine use. [71] Ketamine was the second-most used illicit drug (behind ecstasy) in absconding Taiwanese adolescents as reported by a multi-city street outreach survey. [72] In a study comparing the reporting rates between web questionnaires and paper-and-pencil questionnaires, ketamine use was reported a higher rate in the web version. [73] Urine samples taken at a club in Taipei, Taiwan, showed high rates of ketamine use at 47.0%; this prevalence was compared with that of detainees suspected of recreational drug use in the general public, of which 2.0% of the samples tested positive for ketamine use. [74]

Law enforcement

In the late 2010s and early 2020s, law enforcement agencies in some U.S. states began directing paramedics to use ketamine to sedate people under arrest, sometimes under the auspices of treatment for the controversial diagnosis "excited delirium". [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] The American Society of Anesthesiologists and American College of Emergency Physicians oppose the use of ketamine or any similar agent to incapacitate someone solely for a law enforcement purpose. [81]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MDMA</span> Psychoactive drug, often called ecstasy

3,4-Methyl​enedioxy​methamphetamine (MDMA), commonly known as ecstasy, and molly, is an empathogen–entactogenic drug with stimulant and minor psychedelic properties. In studies, it has been used alongside psychotherapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorder. The purported pharmacological effects that may be prosocial include altered sensations, increased energy, empathy, and pleasure. When taken by mouth, effects begin in 30 to 45 minutes and last three to six hours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ketamine</span> Dissociative anesthetic and anti-depressant

Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic used medically for induction and maintenance of anesthesia. It is also used as a treatment for depression and in pain management. Ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist which accounts for most of its psychoactive effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxycodone</span> Opioid medication

Oxycodone, sold under the brand name Roxicodone and OxyContin among others, is a semi-synthetic opioid used medically for treatment of moderate to severe pain. It is highly addictive and is a commonly abused drug. It is usually taken by mouth, and is available in immediate-release and controlled-release formulations. Onset of pain relief typically begins within fifteen minutes and lasts for up to six hours with the immediate-release formulation. In the United Kingdom, it is available by injection. Combination products are also available with paracetamol (acetaminophen), ibuprofen, naloxone, naltrexone, and aspirin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phencyclidine</span> Dissociative hallucinogenic drug, mostly used recreationally

Phencyclidine or phenylcyclohexyl piperidine (PCP), also known in its use as a street drug as angel dust among other names, is a dissociative anesthetic mainly used recreationally for its significant mind-altering effects. PCP may cause hallucinations, distorted perceptions of sounds, and violent behavior. As a recreational drug, it is typically smoked, but may be taken by mouth, snorted, or injected. It may also be mixed with cannabis or tobacco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recreational drug use</span> Use of drugs with the primary intention to alter the state of consciousness

Recreational drug use is the use of one or more psychoactive drugs to induce an altered state of consciousness, either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime. When a psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect. Recreational drugs are commonly divided into three categories: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.

α-Methyltryptamine Chemical compound

α-Methyltryptamine is a psychedelic, stimulant, and entactogen drug of the tryptamine family. It was originally developed as an antidepressant at Upjohn in the 1960s, and was used briefly as an antidepressant in the Soviet Union under the brand name Indopan or Indopane before being discontinued.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Club drug</span> Category of recreational drugs

Club drugs, also called rave drugs or party drugs, are a loosely defined category of recreational drugs which are associated with discothèques in the 1970s and nightclubs, dance clubs, electronic dance music (EDM) parties, and raves in the 1980s to today. Unlike many other categories, such as opiates and benzodiazepines, which are established according to pharmaceutical or chemical properties, club drugs are a "category of convenience", in which drugs are included due to the locations they are consumed and/or where the user goes while under the influence of the drugs. Club drugs are generally used by adolescents and young adults.

A date rape drug is any drug that incapacitates another person and renders that person vulnerable to sexual assault, including rape. The substances are associated with date rape because of reported incidents of their use in the context of two people dating, during which the victim is sexually assaulted or raped or suffers other harm. However, substances have also been exploited during retreats, for example ayahuasca retreats. The substances are not exclusively used to perpetrate sexual assault or rape, but are the properties or side-effects of substances normally used for legitimate medical purposes. One of the most common incapacitating agents for date rape is alcohol, administered either surreptitiously or consumed voluntarily, rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysubstance use</span> Use of multiple psychoactive substances

Polysubstance use or poly drug use refers to the use of combined psychoactive substances. Polysubstance use may be used for entheogenic, recreational, or off-label indications, with both legal and illegal substances. In many cases one drug is used as a base or primary drug, with additional drugs to leaven or compensate for the side effects, or tolerance, of the primary drug and make the experience more enjoyable with drug synergy effects, or to supplement for primary drug when supply is low.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nimetazepam</span> Benzodiazepine medication

Nimetazepam is an intermediate-acting hypnotic drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It was first synthesized by a team at Hoffmann-La Roche in 1964. It possesses powerful hypnotic, anxiolytic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Nimetazepam is also a particularly potent anticonvulsant. It is marketed in 5 mg tablets known as Erimin, which is the brand name manufactured and marketed by the large Japanese corporation Sumitomo. Japan is the sole manufacturer of nimetazepam in the world. Outside of Japan, Erimin is available in much of East and Southeast Asia and was widely prescribed for the short-term treatment of severe insomnia in patients who have difficulty falling asleep or maintaining sleep. Sumitomo has ceased manufacturing Erimin since November 2015. It is still available as a generic drug or as Lavol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug</span> Substance having effect(s) on the body of an individual

A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption via a patch on the skin, suppository, or dissolution under the tongue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Esketamine</span> Medication

Esketamine, sold under the brand names Spravato and Ketanest among others, is the S(+) enantiomer of ketamine. It is a dissociative hallucinogen drug used as a general anesthetic and as an antidepressant for treatment of depression. Esketamine is the active enantiomer of ketamine in terms of NMDA receptor antagonism and is more potent than racemic ketamine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mephedrone</span> Synthetic stimulant drug

Mephedrone, also known as 4-methylmethcathinone, 4-MMC, and 4-methylephedrone, is a synthetic stimulant drug belonging to the amphetamine and cathinone classes. It is commonly referred to by slang names such as drone, M-CAT, White Magic, meow meow, and bubble. Chemically, it is similar to the cathinone compounds found in the Khat plant, native to eastern Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Nutt</span> English neuropsychopharmacologist

David John Nutt is an English neuropsychopharmacologist specialising in the research of drugs that affect the brain and conditions such as addiction, anxiety, and sleep. He is the chairman of Drug Science, a non-profit which he founded in 2010 to provide independent, evidence-based information on drugs. In 2019 he co-founded the company GABAlabs and its subsidiary SENTIA Spirits which research and market alternatives to alcohol. Until 2009, he was a professor at the University of Bristol heading their Psychopharmacology Unit. Since then he has been the Edmond J Safra chair in Neuropsychopharmacology at Imperial College London and director of the Neuropsychopharmacology Unit in the Division of Brain Sciences there. Nutt was a member of the Committee on Safety of Medicines, and was President of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methoxetamine</span> Dissociative drug

Methoxetamine (MXE) is a dissociative hallucinogen that has been sold as a designer drug. It differs from many dissociatives such as ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP) that were developed as pharmaceutical drugs for use as general anesthetics in that it was designed specifically to increase the antidepressant effects of ketamine.

Legal drug abuse is the action of using drugs that are allowed by the government or not controlled by means of prescription to alter one’s consciousness and emotions. The Hong Kong government has tolerate policy against legal drug use. Drugs such as cannabis and ecstasy, which can be considered recreational drugs in other countries are all illegal in Hong Kong.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arketamine</span> Chemical compound

Arketamine (developmental code names PCN-101, HR-071603), also known as (R)-ketamine or (R)-(−)-ketamine, is the (R)-(−) enantiomer of ketamine. Similarly to racemic ketamine and esketamine, the S(+) enantiomer of ketamine, arketamine is biologically active; however, it is less potent as an NMDA receptor antagonist and anesthetic and thus has never been approved or marketed for clinical use as an enantiopure drug. Arketamine is currently in clinical development as a novel antidepressant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Norketamine</span> Major active metabolite of ketamine

Norketamine, or N-desmethylketamine, is the major active metabolite of ketamine, which is formed mainly by CYP3A4. Similarly to ketamine, norketamine acts as a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, but is about 3–5 times less potent as an anesthetic in comparison.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2-Fluorodeschloroketamine</span> Chemical compound

2-Fluorodeschloroketamine is a dissociative anesthetic related to ketamine. Its sale and use as a designer drug has been reported in various countries. It is an analogue of ketamine where the chlorine group has been replaced by fluorine. Due to its recent emergence, the pharmacological specifics of the compound are mostly unclear, but effects are reported to be similar to its parent compound, ketamine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2-Oxo-PCE</span> Chemical compound

2-Oxo-PCE is a dissociative anesthetic of the arylcyclohexylamine class that is closely related to deschloroketamine and eticyclidine, and has been sold online as a designer drug.

References

  1. ↑ Elks J (14 November 2014). The Dictionary of Drugs: Chemical Data: Chemical Data, Structures and Bibliographies. Springer. pp. 258–. ISBN   978-1-4757-2085-3. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Index Nominum 2000: International Drug Directory. Taylor & Francis. 2000. pp. 584–585. ISBN   978-3-88763-075-1.
  3. 1 2 3 Morton IK, Hall JM (6 December 2012). Concise Dictionary of Pharmacological Agents: Properties and Synonyms. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 159–. ISBN   978-94-011-4439-1. Archived from the original on 11 April 2017.
  4. 1 2 "Esketamine". Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  5. 1 2 Winter C (19 August 2015). "The Club Drug Cure: Ketamine's New Shot as a Depression Treatment". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 30 March 2017.
  6. ↑ Lawrence J (19 March 2015). "The secret life of ketamine". Pharmaceutical Journal. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  7. ↑ Krystal, John H.; Abdallah, Chadi G.; Sanacora, Gerard; Charney, Dennis S.; Duman, Ronald S. (2019-03-06). "Ketamine: A Paradigm Shift for Depression Research and Treatment". Neuron. 101 (5): 774–778. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.02.005. ISSN   1097-4199. PMC   6560624 . PMID   30844397.
  8. ↑ Agres T (3 December 2015). "Anesthesiologists Take Lead As Ketamine Clinics Proliferate". Anesthesiology News.
  9. 1 2 Hashimoto K (October 2019). "Rapid-acting antidepressant ketamine, its metabolites and other candidates: A historical overview and future perspective". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 73 (10): 613–627. doi:10.1111/pcn.12902. PMC   6851782 . PMID   31215725.
  10. ↑ Nulley D (28 July 2015). "Australia Has Closed Its Most Controversial Ketamine Clinics". Vice. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017.
  11. ↑ Mathew SJ, Zarate Jr CA (25 November 2016). Ketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression: The First Decade of Progress. Springer. pp. 8–10, 14–22. ISBN   978-3-319-42925-0. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.
  12. ↑ Poisons Standard October 2015 "Poisons Standard October 2015". 30 September 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
  13. ↑ Poisons Act 1964 http://www.slp.wa.gov.au/pco/prod/FileStore.nsf/Documents/MRDocument:26063P/$FILE/Poisons%20Act%201964%20-%20%5B09-f0-04%5D.pdf?OpenElement Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ↑ Legal status of ketamine in Canada references:
  15. ↑ "Government to tighten control on Ketamine", info.gov.hk (press release), Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative, 22 November 2000, archived from the original on 26 June 2013, retrieved 2 August 2014
  16. ↑ Ho Wai-kin V (2011). Criminal Law in Hong Kong. Kluwer Law International. p.  33. ISBN   9789041133069.
  17. 1 2 Li JH, Vicknasingam B, Cheung YW, Zhou W, Nurhidayat AW, Jarlais DC, Schottenfeld R (2011). "To use or not to use: an update on licit and illicit ketamine use". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2 (1): 11–20. doi: 10.2147/SAR.S15458 . PMC   3846302 . PMID   24474851.
  18. ↑ Chang R (4 December 2012). "Ketamine to be made a class-two drug: Official". Taipei Times . p. 3. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014.
  19. ↑ "Ketamine drug brought under 'Schedule X' to curb abuse". The Times of India . 7 January 2014. Archived from the original on 14 April 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  20. ↑ Deb Roy S (30 December 2013). "Govt makes notorious 'date rape' drug ketamine harder to buy or sell". The Times of India . Archived from the original on 30 December 2013.
  21. ↑ "Club 'horse' drug to be outlawed". BBC News . 28 December 2005. Archived from the original on 3 September 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
  22. ↑ Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD); Baker, Norman (10 December 2013), Ketamine: A review of use and harm (PDF) (Policy paper), Crown copyright; Open Government Licence, archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2014, retrieved 22 January 2014.
  23. 1 2 Baker, Norman; (Minister for Crime Prevention); Home Office; United Kingdom (12 February 2014), Response to ACMD recommendation on ketamine (PDF) (Correspondence to Les Iverson [chair of]; Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs), Crown copyright; Open Government Licence, archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2014, retrieved 21 February 2014.
  24. ↑ Dixon H (12 February 2014). "Party drug ketamine to be upgraded to Class B". The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  25. ↑ Marshall DR, (Deputy Administrator), Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (13 July 1999). "Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Ketamine into Schedule III [21 CFR Part 1308. Final Rule 99-17803]" (PDF). Rules and Regulations. Federal Register . 64 (133): 37673–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2015.
  26. ↑ Shelton G (2008). The Freak Brothers Omnibus. London: Knockabout Comics. p. 144. ISBN   978-0-86166-159-6.
  27. ↑ Alltounian HS, Moore M (1978). Journeys into the Bright World. Rockport, Mass.: Para Research. ISBN   978-0-914918-12-7.[ page needed ]
  28. ↑ Awuonda M (1 July 1996). "Swedes alarmed at ketamine misuse". The Lancet . 348 (9020): 122. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)64628-4. S2CID   53269227.
  29. ↑ Curran HV, Morgan C (April 2000). "Cognitive, dissociative and psychotogenic effects of ketamine in recreational users on the night of drug use and 3 days later". Addiction. 95 (4): 575–90. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.9545759.x. PMID   10829333.
  30. ↑ Gahlinger PM (June 2004). "Club drugs: MDMA, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), Rohypnol, and ketamine". American Family Physician. 69 (11): 2619–26. PMID   15202696.
  31. ↑ Jansen KL (March 1993). "Non-medical use of ketamine". BMJ. 306 (6878) (Clinical research ed.): 601–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.306.6878.601. PMC   1676978 . PMID   8461808.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Joe-Laidler K, Hunt G (June 2008). "Sit Down to Float: The Cultural Meaning of Ketamine Use in Hong Kong". Addiction Research & Theory. 16 (3): 259–271. doi:10.1080/16066350801983673. PMC   2744071 . PMID   19759834.
  33. ↑ Measham F, Aldridge J, Parker H (2001). Dancing on drugs: risk, health and hedonism in the British club scene. London: Free Association. ISBN   978-1-85343-512-6.
  34. ↑ Saunders N, Heron L (1993). E for Ecstasy. London: N. Saunders. ISBN   978-0-9501628-8-1.[ page needed ]
  35. ↑ See: for details online.
  36. ↑ Moore K, Measham F (1 January 2006). "Ketamine use: minimising problems and maximising pleasure". Drugs and Alcohol Today. 6 (3): 29–32. doi:10.1108/17459265200600047.
  37. 1 2 See Max Daly, 2014, "The Sad Demise of Nancy Lee, One of Britain's Ketamine Casualties," at Vice (online), 23 July 2014, see "The Sad Demise of Nancy Lee, One of Britain's Ketamine Casualties". 23 July 2014. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015., accessed 7 June 2015.
  38. ↑ The Crown, 2013, "Drug related deaths involving ketamine in England and Wales," a report of the Mortality team, Life Events and Population Sources Division, Office for National Statistics, the Crown (U.K.), see "UK Government Web Archive". Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015. and "Deaths Related to Drug Poisoning in England and Wales – Office for National Statistics". Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015., accessed 7 June 2015.
  39. ↑ Dixon H (12 February 2014). "Ketamine death of public schoolgirl an 'act of stupidity which destroyed family'". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017.
  40. 1 2 "Do you know... Ketamine". Knowledge Exchange. Toronto: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. 2003. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  41. ↑ Giannini AJ, Loiselle RH, Giannini MC, Price WA (1985). "Phencyclidine and the dissociatives". Psychiatric Medicine. 3 (3): 197–217. PMID   2893430.
  42. ↑ Giannini AJ, Underwood NA, Condon M (November 2000). "Acute ketamine intoxication treated by haloperidol: a preliminary study". American Journal of Therapeutics. 7 (6): 389–91. doi:10.1097/00045391-200007060-00008. PMID   11304647.
  43. ↑ Giannini AJ (1999). Drug Abuse . Los Angeles: Health Information Press. p.  104. ISBN   978-1-885987-11-2.
  44. ↑ References for recreational use in literature:
  45. ↑ Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. pp. 50, 89. ISBN   978-0-9660019-3-8.
  46. ↑ Woodard, D., “The Ketamine Necromance”, in A. Parfrey, Apocalypse Culture II (Los Angeles: Feral House, 2000), pp. 288–295.
  47. ↑ "Ketamine". Center for Substance Abuse Research (CESAR); University of Maryland, College Park. 29 October 2013. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  48. ↑ Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. p. 24. ISBN   978-0-9660019-3-8.
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Center for Substance Abuse Research: Ketamine Terminology". Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  50. 1 2 Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. p. 26. ISBN   978-0-9660019-3-8.
  51. 1 2 Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. p. 55. ISBN   978-0-9660019-3-8.
  52. 1 2 "DEA Office of Diversion Control: Ketamine". Archived from the original on 15 December 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  53. 1 2 3 "Ketamine: A fact sheet (National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  54. 1 2 Tellier PP (September 2002). "Club drugs: is it all ecstasy?". Pediatric Annals. 31 (9): 550–6. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-20020901-07. PMID   12271739.
  55. ↑ "Research Report on Hallucinogens and Dissociatives" (PDF). NIDA. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
  56. ↑ Nutt D (2012). Drugs – Without the Hot Air: Minimising the Harms of Legal and Illegal Drugs. UIT Cambridge. ISBN   978-1-906860-16-5.
  57. ↑ Chakraborty K, Neogi R, Basu D (June 2011). "Club drugs: review of the 'rave' with a note of concern for the Indian scenario". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 133 (6): 594–604. PMC   3135986 . PMID   21727657.
  58. ↑ "Trends in Use of Various Drugs, Table 2" (PDF). Monitoring the Future . Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  59. 1 2 "Use of Specific Hallucinogens: 2006". The NSDUH Report. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  60. ↑ "Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2009: National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits" (PDF). HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4659, DAWN Series D-35. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  61. 1 2 "SI.com – The Mexican Connection – Jul 18, 2007". CNN. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
  62. ↑ Untitled-59
  63. ↑ Kalsi SS, Wood DM, Dargan PI (April 2011). "The epidemiology and patterns of acute and chronic toxicity associated with recreational ketamine use". Emerging Health Threats Journal. 4: 7107. doi:10.3402/ehtj.v4i0.7107. PMC   3168228 . PMID   24149025.
  64. ↑ Błachut M, Sołowiów K, Janus A, Ruman J, Cekus A, Matysiakiewicz J, Hese RT (Sep–Oct 2009). "[A case of ketamine dependence]". Psychiatria Polska. 43 (5): 593–9. PMID   20214100.
  65. ↑ Greenwald G. "Drug Decriminalization in Portugal" (PDF). CATO Institute. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  66. ↑ "2019 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report" (PDF). Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  67. ↑ "The Ketamine Connection".
  68. ↑ Cheung Y. "Drug Policy and Harm Reduction in Hong Kong: A Socio-Historical Examination*" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  69. ↑ "CRDA Drug Statistics". Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  70. 1 2 "CRDA Fifty-ninth Report (2000–2009)" (PDF). Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  71. 1 2 Chen WJ, Fu TC, Ting TT, Huang WL, Tang GM, Hsiao CK, Chen CY (January 2009). "Use of ecstasy and other psychoactive substances among school-attending adolescents in Taiwan: national surveys 2004–2006". BMC Public Health. 9 (1): 27. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-27 . PMC   2636802 . PMID   19159468.
  72. ↑ Wang SH, Chen WC, Lew-Ting CY, Chen CY, Chen WJ (January 2010). "Running away experience and psychoactive substance use among adolescents in Taiwan: multi-city street outreach survey". BMC Public Health. 10 (1): 29. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-29 . PMC   2823700 . PMID   20089181.
  73. ↑ Wang YC, Lee CM, Lew-Ting CY, Hsiao CK, Chen DR, Chen WJ (October 2005). "Survey of substance use among high school students in Taipei: web-based questionnaire versus paper-and-pencil questionnaire". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 37 (4): 289–95. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.017. PMID   16182139.
  74. ↑ Lua AC, Lin HR, Tseng YT, Hu AR, Yeh PC (September 2003). "Profiles of urine samples from participants at rave party in Taiwan: prevalence of ketamine and MDMA abuse". Forensic Science International. 136 (1–3): 47–51. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00261-5. PMID   12969619.
  75. ↑ "Two strangers, with the same first name, and a terrifying story about ketamine in policing". CNN. 2020-09-01.
  76. ↑ "Minnesota Paramedic Speaks Out Against Police Use of Ketamine Injections". The Intercept. 2020-08-25.
  77. ↑ "Ketamine that's injected during arrests draws new scrutiny". AP. 2020-08-22.
  78. ↑ "Ketamine that's injected during arrests draws new scrutiny". ABC News. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  79. ↑ Yee, Gregory (28 February 2020). "Mount Pleasant man's ketamine-related death in police custody under investigation". Post and Courier. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  80. ↑ "Colo. Paramedics' Ketamine Use for Elijah McClain Under Investigation". EMS World. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  81. ↑ "American College of Emergency Physicians and American Society of Anesthesiologists Issue Joint Statement on Ketamine Use". 2020-08-26.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.