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Korean pagodas are a traditional Korean architectural form that began in the Three Kingdoms of Korea period. Koreans created a unique and distinct pagoda tradition using stone. [1] [2] [3]
Pagodas were created in India using earth, then in China using wood, which spread to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and then Japan; however, the pagoda tradition of East Asia diverged, with China creating pagodas using bricks, Korea creating pagodas using stone, and Japan continuing to use wood. [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
Korean stone pagodas were first created in Baekje during the early 7th century and then inherited by Later Silla; 90% of the pagodas in Later Silla were made of stone. [4] The stone pagoda tradition was propagated by the great abundance of high quality granite in Korea, [9] which also led to other granite creations such as the Seokguram and Cheomseongdae. Goryeo, a devoutly Buddhist state, also inherited the stone pagoda tradition. [10]
Examples of Korean wood pagodas are the Hwangnyongsa Pagoda and Palsangjeon of Silla.
One of the earliest stone pagodas built is the Mireuksa stone pagoda from Paekche kingdom in 639 A.D. When the idea of pagodas was first introduced from neighboring Buddhist countries China and India, the influence of pagodas was largely based on plans from wooden pagodas, which eventually led to a widespread use of wood for the construction of pagodas in the early centuries of the three kingdoms period. [11] However, around the 7th century, Paekche architects began shifting to stone pagodas and stone pagodas eventually became much more prominent around the 8th century. This is largely due to the reason that wooden pagodas were much more vulnerable to destruction from fire and quality stone materials were more accessible and readily available in Paekche during the early implementation of stone pagodas. Furthermore, architects began noticing how stone pagodas were much easier to maintain than wooden pagodas and stone pagodas are more sturdy than wooden pagodas. [12]
Initially, stone pagodas still kept many of the features of wooden pagodas. When looking at the Mireuksa stone pagoda, it utilized similar characteristics and techniques that were seen in the wooden pagodas from the early Paekche eras. The Mireuksa stone pagoda will be compared with the nine-story wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple. As this wooden pagoda was destroyed in a fire during the Mongol invasion, only records are able to be used to provide analysis on the structure. However, both the stone and wooden pagoda utilized pillars and with narrow passageways at each four sides of the base enabling people during the time to enter and exit the pagoda for most likely spiritual and religious reasons. There is also great emphasis on the proportionality of the structures as they are squares with equal sides and although the base portion is the largest portion of the two structures, the following stories are all equal in size. Moreover, another feature that is adopted by the stone pagoda is the roof. The wooden pagoda is able to utilize carving techniques of the wood to develop symmetric and smooth surfaces to the roofs separating each story. This creates an angle on the roof which is consistent with Buddhist architecture as the roofs are slanted to emphasize the different stories. However, as this technique is harder to implement with stone material, the stone pagoda carves in the layers of the roofs by increasing the size at the middle of the roof to be greatest and creates step-like patterns which decrease as you move away from the middle of the roof. This creates similar layers as seen in the roof of the wooden pagoda but utilizes an entirely different technique. The use of varying roof techniques is important in emphasizing the scale of the two pagodas as these pagodas were much larger than other pagodas of the time. This emphasis on the scale of these two pagodas as much larger pagodas contributes to the idea that individuals with authority during the time utilize pagodas as indicators of their power, as larger pagodas indicate a stronger belief in the Buddhist religion and a more united kingdom. [11]
Built under the rule of Silla's first reigning queen, Bunhwangsa pagoda is one of Silla's oldest stone pagodas that signify the importance of Buddhism as it is a representation of the significant influence Buddhism had on the political and socioeconomic status of Silla at the time. This pagoda used unprecedented material in its construction, which makes it distinct from other pagodas. This is due to the reason that although it is a stone pagoda, it was made out of brick shaped stones in order to resemble bricks (National Museum Korea). Apart from its political and religious significance of Buddhism, this pagoda also became an important symbol of gender inequalities during the time. While her power as queen of Silla was questioned by many, including the other kingdoms and its ally China, queen Seondeok decided to build a seven-story pagoda to strengthen her authority and the legitimacy of her rule as a queen. [13] Like previous pagodas, it was designed with symmetry and with its roofs at each level built similarly. As this pagoda was larger in scale compared to previous pagodas built, it quickly united the people of Silla under the influence of Buddhism and strengthened her legitimacy as queen of Silla as it warned the other kingdoms of Silla as a kingdom that was still powerful. This is due to the reason that building such large pagodas at the time required a lot of labor, material, and coordination between the architects and builders of the pagoda. [13] Apart from this, the pagoda also became an important symbol of Buddhism for the people of Silla as it became a sacred religious and spiritual site for the people of Silla to worship the Buddha and pray for the unification of Silla with the other kingdoms. With the construction of this pagoda, the people of Silla became more united, as their belief in Buddhism through this pagoda as a sacred worshiping site enabled them to come together and pray for the reunification of Silla with the other kingdoms, as well as defending themselves against foreign invasion. [14]
Early in the Silla and Paekche kingdoms, the pagoda initially served as a site for the preservation of the body parts of the cremation and reaching of Nirvana of the Buddha Sakyamuni. [15] However, over time, the purpose of pagodas eventually shifted to more accessible and became sacred sites for worshiping Buddhism in general rather than just the Buddha. Apart from the purpose of the pagodas, the characteristics of the pagodas also shifted to include more features that were previously not seen in the early stone pagodas. This included the development of flat pavements at the base of the pagoda in order to add support to the base of the structure. Moreover, a long cylindrical structure at the top of the pagoda became more popular and enabled the people worshiping at these sites to feel closer to the Buddha, as they acted as an antenna which connected the Buddha to the people. [16] Stone railings were also added with various sculpted designs depicting various themes and symbols from buddhism. These changes led to the pagodas that we see today.
A prominent example of these changes in the Dabotap pagoda, which challenged the traditional norms of the structure of stone pagodas. One of the main reasons is due to controversy surrounding the number of floors on this pagoda, as it ranges from 2-4 depending on the viewer. The main reason behind this controversy is due to the reason that this pagoda utilizes various shapes in different scales which creates unique perspectives that can be interpreted differently depending on the person. This is due to the square and octagonal-shaped roofs separating the various stories have various sizes that decrease as the height of the pagoda increases, with the exception of the top roof. Moreover, apart from the scale, the technique and surface of each of the roof shapes vary. As an example, the roofs towards the base of the pagoda are more square and have sharper edges. However, the roofs at the top of the pagoda have edges that are more round and spherical, which implements a unique symmetrical technique to develop greater depth and texture on the edges around the roof. Moreover, this pagoda also implements railings around a square and circular-shaped roof, which is a unique feature that also challenges the traditional norms of previous pagodas. Additionally, another unique aspect of this pagoda is the lion figure decoration that was located at the top of each stairway and entranceway/side of the pagoda. Although there is only one lion figure remaining—due to looting, these figures played an important role and were an important symbol of Buddhism as they represented strength and protection, as they were the protector of the Buddha. [16] The four flights of stairs may have played a significant role in the worshiping of the Buddha and Buddhism at the time, as it may have enabled religious figures or people at the time to enter and place important objects at the center of the pagoda for worship.
A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Thailand, Cambodia, Nepal, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist, but sometimes Taoist, and were often located in or near viharas. The pagoda traces its origins to the stupa, while its design was developed in ancient India. Chinese pagodas are a traditional part of Chinese architecture. In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views they offer, and many classical poems attest to the joy of scaling pagodas.
Haeinsa (Korean: 해인사) is a Buddhist temple in Gayasan National Park, South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. It is the head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Seon Buddhism. Haeinsa is most notable for being the home of the Tripitaka Koreana, the whole of the Buddhist Scriptures carved onto 81,350 wooden printing blocks, which it has housed since 1398.
Mireuksa (Korean: 미륵사) was the largest Buddhist temple in the ancient Korean kingdom of Baekje. The temple was established in 602 by King Mu and is located 36.012083 N, 127.031028 E, modern Iksan, North Jeolla Province, South Korea. The site was excavated in 1980, disclosing many hitherto unknown facts about Baekje architecture. Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda is one of two extant Baekje pagodas. It is also the largest as well as being among the oldest of all Korean pagodas.
Korean arts include traditions in calligraphy, music, painting and pottery, often marked by the use of natural forms, surface decoration and bold colors or sounds.
Korean architecture refers to an architectural style that developed over centuries in Korea. Throughout the history of Korea, various kingdoms and royal dynasties have developed a unique style of architecture with influences from Buddhism and Korean Confucianism.
Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent. Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (viharas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer halls, which later came to be called temples in some places.
Hwangnyongsa (Korean: 황룡사), alternatively Hwangnyong Temple or Hwangryongsa, was a Buddhist temple in the city of Gyeongju, South Korea.
Beopjusa, is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It is situated on the slopes of Songnisan, within Songnisan National Park, in Naesongni-myeon, Boeun County, in the province of Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea.
Woljeongsa (Korean: 월정사) is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, located on the eastern slopes of Odaesan in Pyeongchang County, Gangwon Province, South Korea. Woljeongsa was founded in 643 by the Silla monk Jajang.
Geumsansa is a temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism standing on the slopes of Moaksan in Gimje City, Jeollabuk-do, South Korea.
The Gyeongju Historic Areas of South Korea were designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000. The protected areas encompass the ruins of temples and palaces, outdoor pagodas and statuary, and other cultural artifacts left by the Silla Kingdom. The historic areas are sometimes known as one of the largest outdoor museums in the world.
Buddhist art is visual art produced in the context of Buddhism. It includes depictions of Gautama Buddha and other Buddhas and bodhisattvas, notable Buddhist figures both historical and mythical, narrative scenes from their lives, mandalas, and physical objects associated with Buddhist practice, such as vajras, bells, stupas and Buddhist temple architecture. Buddhist art originated in the north of the Indian subcontinent, in modern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, with the earliest survivals dating from a few centuries after the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama from the 6th to 5th century BCE.
Bunhwangsa is a temple complex from the Old Silla era of Korea. It is located in Gyeongju. The temple is recorded to have been built in 634 under the auspices of Queen Seondeok. Today the temple is still used by a small group of worshipers but in its heyday, the temple covered several acres and was one of the four main temples of the Silla Kingdom used by the state to ask the Buddha to bless the kingdom. The ruins of Hwangnyongsa Temple lay nearby. It is part of the UNESCO world heritage site Gyeongju Historic Areas.
Unjusa or Unju Temple is a Korean Buddhist temple located in Hwasun County, South Jeolla province, South Korea. It is 26 km (16 mi) southwest of Hwasun County or 40 km (24 mi) south of Gwangju. Compared with other temples in South Korea, this temple has an unusual collection of stone Buddha statues and stone pagodas, so Unjusa is often referred to as the mysterious temple. Among several assumptions regarding its origin, the most widely known one is that Monk Doseon founded the temple based on geomancy during the late period of Silla Dynasty, but the origins remain unverified.
Korean Buddhist sculpture is one of the major areas of Korean art. Buddhism, a religion originating in what is now India, was transmitted to Korea via China in the late 4th century. Buddhism introduced major changes in Korean society. The complexity of the religious sutras sent to Korea required the aristocrats who adopted the religion to become literate and required the training and importation of literate scribes. Little evidence of religious art exists in Korea before the introduction of Buddhism. Subsequent to its introduction, the religion inspired the production of devotional art as well as the beginnings of sophisticated temple architecture.
The Songyue Pagoda, constructed in 523 CE, is located at the Songyue Monastery on Mount Song, in Henan province, China. Built during the Northern Wei Dynasty, this pagoda is one of the few intact sixth-century pagodas in China and is also the earliest known Chinese brick pagoda. Most structures from that period were made of wood and have not survived, although ruins of rammed earth fortifications still exist. In 2010, the Pagoda was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List along with other nearby monuments as part of the 'Historic Monuments of Dengfeng in “The Centre of Heaven and Earth”' site.
Japanese Buddhist architecture is the architecture of Buddhist temples in Japan, consisting of locally developed variants of architectural styles born in China. After Buddhism arrived from the continent via the Three Kingdoms of Korea in the 6th century, an effort was initially made to reproduce the original buildings as faithfully as possible, but gradually local versions of continental styles were developed both to meet Japanese tastes and to solve problems posed by local weather, which is more rainy and humid than in China. The first Buddhist sects were Nara's six Nanto Rokushū, followed during the Heian period by Kyoto's Shingon and Tendai. Later, during the Kamakura period, in Kamakura were born the Jōdo and the native Japanese sect Nichiren-shū. At roughly the same time, Zen Buddhism arrived from China, strongly influencing all other sects in many ways, including in architecture. The social composition of Buddhism's followers also changed radically with time. Beginning as an elite religion, it slowly spread from the nobility to warriors and merchants, and finally to the population at large. On the technical side, new woodworking tools like the framed pit saw and the plane allowed new architectural solutions.
Pagodas in Japan are called tō, sometimes buttō or tōba and historically derive from the Chinese pagoda, itself an interpretation of the Indian stupa. Like the stupa, pagodas were originally used as reliquaries but in many cases they ended up losing this function. Pagodas are quintessentially Buddhist and an important component of Japanese Buddhist temple compounds but, because until the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868, a Shinto shrine was normally also a Buddhist temple and vice versa, they are not rare at shrines either. The famous Itsukushima Shrine, for example, has one.
The Baekje Historic Areas are a group of monuments located in three South Korean cities: Gongju, Buyeo, and Iksan. They relate to the last period of the Baekje Kingdom, representing the period from 475 to 660 CE, which was one of the three kingdoms that flourished from 18 BC to 660 CE. The property designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site has eight archaeological sites. These are: The Gongsanseong fortress and the royal tombs at Songsan-ri, related to the capital city of Ungjin, now Gongju; the Busosanseong Fortress and Gwanbuk-ri administrative buildings, the Jeongnimsa Temple, the Neungsan-ri royal tombs, and the Naseong city wall in Sabi, now Buyeo; and the Wanggung-ri Palace and the Mireuksa Temple in Iksan, a subsidiary capital region of Sabi.
Iksan Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda is located in Mireuksaji, Geumma-myeon, Iksan-si, North Jeolla Province, and is the oldest stone pagoda remaining in Korea. It is designated as the 11th national treasure.
Going from China to Korea and from Korea to Japan, the pagoda evolved in varying styles and materials: brick pagodas were more numerous in China, stone pagodas fairly soon predominated in Korea, and wooden pagodas were most popular in Japan.
Unlike the Chinese brick pagodas, the Silla people used granite stones in building the base of brick pagodas, probably due to the fact that the Silla people were more skilled in the technique of cutting stones, and quality granite is abundant in the Korean peninsula.