Magnesium battery

Last updated

Magnesium batteries are batteries that utilize magnesium cations as charge carriers and possibly in the anode in electrochemical cells. Both non-rechargeable primary cell and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated. Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries.

Contents

Magnesium secondary cell batteries are an active research topic as a possible replacement or improvement over lithium-ion–based battery chemistries in certain applications. A significant advantage of magnesium cells is their use of a solid magnesium anode, offering energy density higher than lithium batteries. Insertion-type anodes ('magnesium ion') have been researched.

Primary cells

Primary magnesium cells have been developed since the early 20th century. In the anode, they take advantage of the low stability and high energy of magnesium metal, whose bonding is weaker by more than 250 kJ/mol compared to iron and most other transition metals, which bond strongly via their partially filled d-orbitals. A number of chemistries for reserve battery types have been studied, with cathode materials including silver chloride, copper(I) chloride, palladium(II) chloride, copper(I) iodide, copper(I) thiocyanate, manganese dioxide and air (oxygen). [1] For example, a water-activated silver chloride/magnesium reserve battery became commercially available by 1943. [2]

The magnesium dry battery type BA-4386 was fully commercialised, with costs per unit approaching that of zinc batteries. Compared to equivalent zinc-carbon cells they had greater capacity by volume, and longer shelf life. The BA-4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until ca.1984, when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery. [3] [4]

A magnesium–air battery has a theoretical operating voltage of 3.1 V and energy density of 6.8 kWh/kg. General Electric produced a magnesium–air battery operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s. The magnesium–air battery is a primary cell, but has the potential to be 'refuelable' by replacement of the anode and electrolyte. Some primary magnesium batteries find use as land-based backup systems as well as undersea power sources, using seawater as the electrolyte. [5] The Mark 44 torpedo uses a water-activated magnesium battery.

Secondary cells

Overview

Secondary magnesium ion batteries involve the reversible flux of Mg2+ ions. They are a candidate for improvement on lithium-ion battery technologies in certain applications. Magnesium has a theoretical energy density per unit mass under half that of lithium (18.8 MJ/kg (~2205 mAh/g) vs. 42.3 MJ/kg), but a volumetric energy density around 50% higher (32.731 GJ/m3 (3833 mAh/mL) vs. 22.569 GJ/m3 (2046 mAh/mL). [6] Magnesium anodes do not exhibit dendrite formation, albeit only in certain nonaqueous solvents and at current densities below ca. 1 mA/cm2. [7] This allows magnesium metal to be used without an intercalation compound at the anode, [note 1] thus raising the theoretical maximum relative volumetric energy density to around 5 times that of a graphite electrode. [10] Modeling and cell analysis indicate that magnesium-based batteries may have a cost advantage due to magnesium's relative abundance and ease of mining. [8] [7]

Applications had been recognised by the 1990s based on V2O5, TiS2, or Ti2S4 cathode materials and magnesium anodes. However, instabilities in the discharge state and uncertainties on the role of water in the electrolyte limited progress. [11] [12] In 2000, Israeli researchers reported dendrite-free Mg plating in AlCl3-ether electrolytes with a fairy high (>2 V vs. Mg/Mg2+) anodic voltage stability limit. [13] In that work, however, a low voltage (and somewhat expensive) anode material (chevrel-type Mo6S8) was used for Mg2+ intercalation. Despite research following that discovery, all attempts to develop a high-voltage Mg2+ intercalation anode for chloroaluminate (and related) electrolytes failed. [14] Electrochemical Mg2+ intercalation into many solid materials is well known, for example from aqueous electrolytes. The problem is to find anode materials that show intercalation from the same solutions, which display reversible Mg metal plating.

In contrast to the Mg-metal batteries, Mg-ion batteries do not use a Mg-metal anode, but rather a solid material capable of intercalating Mg2+ ions. Such batteries usually use an aqueous or other polar electrolyte. [15] A commercially viable/competitive market niche for Mg-ion batteries has not been identified.

Research

Anodes and electrolytes

A key drawback to magnesium anodes is the tendency to form a passivating (non-conducting) surface layer when recharging. [16] The passivating layer was thought to originate from electrolyte decomposition during ion reduction. Common counter ions such as perchlorate and tetrafluoroborate were found to contribute to passivation, as were some common polar aprotic solvents such as carbonates and nitriles. [17] The passivating layer motivates the use of magnesium intermetallics as anode materials, as their lower reactivity with common electrolytes makes them less prone to passivation. This is particularly true for the intermetallic compound Mg3Bi2, which constitutes a type of magnesium insertion electrode, based on reversible insertion of magnesium metal into a host compound. [18] In addition to bismuth, tin and antimony have been used in compound insertion electrodes. [19] These prevent anode surface passivation, but suffer from anode destruction due to volumetric changes, as well as slow insertion kinetics. Examples of insertion anode types include cycling between elemental Sn and Mg2Sn. [20] [21] [22]

Grignard-based ethereal electrolytes have been shown not to passivate. [23] Magnesium organoborates showed electroplating without passivation. Mg(BPh2Bu2)2 was used in the first rechargeable magnesium battery, but its usefulness was limited by electrochemical oxidation (i.e., a low anodic limit of the voltage window). [24] Other electrolytes researched include borohydrides, phenolates, alkoxides, amido based complexes (e.g. based on hexamethyldisilazane), carborane salts, fluorinated alkoxyborates, a Mg(BH4)(NH2) solid state electrolyte, and gel polymers containing Mg(AlCl2EtBu)2 in tetraglyme/PVDF. [25] [26]

Interest in magnesium-metal batteries started in 2000, when an Israeli group reported reversible magnesium plating from mixed solutions of magnesium chloride and aluminium chloride in ethers, such as THF. [27] [28] This electrolyte's primary advantage is a significantly larger positive limit of the voltage window (higher voltage). Since then, other Mg salts, less corrosive than chloride, have been reported. [29]

One drawback compared to lithium is magnesium's higher charge (+2) in solution, which tends to increase viscosity and reduce mobility. [30] In solution a number of species may exist depending on counter ions/complexing agents – these often include singly-charged species (e.g. MgCl+ in the presence of chloride) – though dimers are often formed (e.g. Mg2Cl3+). [31] Movement into cathode host lattices is problematically slow. [32]

In 2018 a chloride-free electrolyte together with a quinone-based polymer cathode demonstrated promising performance, with up to 243 Wh (870 kJ)kg-1 specific energy, up to 3.4 kW/kg specific power, and up to 87% retention at 2,500 cycles. The absence of chloride in the electrolyte was claimed to improve ion kinetics and reduce the amount of electrolyte needed, increasing performance. [33]

One promising approach is the combination of a Mg anode with a sulfur/carbon cathode. [34] A non-nucleophilic electrolyte is needed that does not convert the sulfur into sulfide just by its reducing properties. Such electrolytes were developed on the basis of chlorine-containing [35] [36] [37] and chlorine-free complex salts. [26] The electrolyte is a Mg salt containing an Mg cation and two boron-hexafluoroisoproplylate groups as anions. This system is easy to synthesize, showing ionic conductivity similar to that of Li-ion cells, its electrochemical stability window is up to 4.5 V, it is stable in air and usable across solvents. [38]

Another approach used a water electrolyte (eliminating risks of fire/explosion). The design used reusable materials, and coated parts of the battery with bismuth and bismuth-oxide to prevent dendrite formation, while still achieving energy density of 75 wH/kg. [39]

Independently, a quasi-solid state battery achieved 2.4 V and an energy density of 264 W·h kg⁻¹. [39]

Cathode materials

Multiple cathode compounds have been researched. Materials investigated include zirconium disulfide, cobalt(II,III) oxide, tungsten diselenide, vanadium pentoxide and vanadate. Cobalt-based spinels showed inferior kinetics to magnesium insertion compared to their behaviour with lithium. [8] [1] In 2000 the chevrel phase form of Mo6S8 showed suitability as a cathode, enduring 2000 cycles at 100% discharge with a 15% loss; drawbacks were poor low temperature performance (reduced Mg mobility, compensated by substituting selenium), as well as low voltage (ca. 1.2 V), and low energy density (110 mAh/g). [8] A molybdenum disulfide cathode reached 1.8 V and 170 mAh/g. Transition metal sulfides are promising cathode candidates. [40] A hybrid magnesium cell using a mixed magnesium/sodium electrolyte with sodium insertion into a nanocrystalline iron(II) disulfide cathode was reported in 2015. [41]

Manganese dioxide cathodes showed good properties, but deteriorated on cycling. [42] Spinels are electrochemically active in a Mg-ion configuration using a carbon-based adsorption anode. High-voltage Mg-ion materials, including MgMn2O4, MgV2O4, and MgCr2O4 have been studied to understand diffusion pathways. [43] [44] Another framework structure type, termed ("post spinels", with the prototypical formula CaFe2O4) are studied. [45]

In 2014 a rechargeable magnesium battery (conversion-type) was reported utilizing an ion-exchanged, olivine-type MgFeSiO4 cathode with a bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide/triglyme electrolyte – the cell showed a capacity of 300 mAh/g with a voltage of 2.4 V. [46] MgMnSiO4 has been investigated as a potential Mg2+ insertion cathode. [47]

Cathodic materials other than non-inorganic metal oxide/sulfide types have been investigated. in 2015 a cathode based on a polymer incorporating anthraquinone was reported; [48] Other organic and organo-polymer cathode materials capable of undergoing redox reactions have been investigated, such as poly-2,2'-dithiodianiline. [49] Quinone-based cathodes formed the cathode a high energy density magnesium battery reported by researchers in 2019. [33]

In 2016 a porous carbon/iodine combination cathode was reported as a potential alternative to Mg2+ insertion cathodes - the chemistry was reported as potentially suitable for a rechargeable flow battery. [50]

See

Notes

  1. ↑ The requirement to intercalate the 'metallic' lithium greatly reduces the energy density of a lithium-ion battery compared to a metallic lithium battery i.e. 372 mAh/g vs. 3862 mAh/g (or 837 mAh/cm3 vs. 2061 mAh/cm3) for lithium/graphite (as LiC6) vs. Li metal. [8] [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion battery</span> Rechargeable battery type

A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries, Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and a longer calendar life. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium metal battery</span> Non-rechargeable battery using lithium metal as anode

Lithium metal batteries are primary batteries that have metallic lithium as an anode. The name intentionally refers to the metal as to distinguish them from lithium-ion batteries, which use lithiated metal oxides as the cathode material. Although most lithium metal batteries are non-rechargeable, rechargeable lithium metal batteries are also under development. Since 2007, Dangerous Goods Regulations differentiate between lithium metal batteries and lithium-ion batteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanobatteries</span> Type of battery

Nanobatteries are fabricated batteries employing technology at the nanoscale, particles that measure less than 100 nanometers or 10−7 meters. These batteries may be nano in size or may use nanotechnology in a macro scale battery. Nanoscale batteries can be combined to function as a macrobattery such as within a nanopore battery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion capacitor</span> Hybrid type of capacitor

A lithium-ion capacitor is a hybrid type of capacitor classified as a type of supercapacitor. It is called a hybrid because the anode is the same as those used in lithium-ion batteries and the cathode is the same as those used in supercapacitors. Activated carbon is typically used as the cathode. The anode of the LIC consists of carbon material which is often pre-doped with lithium ions. This pre-doping process lowers the potential of the anode and allows a relatively high output voltage compared to other supercapacitors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium–sulfur battery</span> Type of rechargeable battery

The lithium–sulfur battery is a type of rechargeable battery. It is notable for its high specific energy. The low atomic weight of lithium and moderate atomic weight of sulfur means that Li–S batteries are relatively light. They were used on the longest and highest-altitude unmanned solar-powered aeroplane flight by Zephyr 6 in August 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thin-film lithium-ion battery</span> Type of battery

The thin-film lithium-ion battery is a form of solid-state battery. Its development is motivated by the prospect of combining the advantages of solid-state batteries with the advantages of thin-film manufacturing processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solid-state battery</span> Battery with solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte

A solid-state battery is an electrical battery that uses a solid electrolyte for ionic conductions between the electrodes, instead of the liquid or gel polymer electrolytes found in conventional batteries. Solid-state batteries theoretically offer much higher energy density than the typical lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries.

The lithium–air battery (Li–air) is a metal–air electrochemical cell or battery chemistry that uses oxidation of lithium at the anode and reduction of oxygen at the cathode to induce a current flow.

A metal–air electrochemical cell is an electrochemical cell that uses an anode made from pure metal and an external cathode of ambient air, typically with an aqueous or aprotic electrolyte.

A potassium-ion battery or K-ion battery is a type of battery and analogue to lithium-ion batteries, using potassium ions for charge transfer instead of lithium ions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium-ion battery</span> Type of rechargeable battery

Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs, SIBs, or Na-ion batteries) are several types of rechargeable batteries, which use sodium ions (Na+) as their charge carriers. In some cases, its working principle and cell construction are similar to those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types, but it replaces lithium with sodium as the intercalating ion. Sodium belongs to the same group in the periodic table as lithium and thus has similar chemical properties. However, in some cases, such as aqueous batteries, SIBs can be quite different from LIBs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peter Bruce</span> British chemist

Sir Peter George Bruce, is a British chemist, and Wolfson Professor of Materials in the Department of Materials at the University of Oxford. Between 2018 and 2023, he served as Physical Secretary and Vice President of the Royal Society. Bruce is a founder and Chief Scientist of the Faraday Institution.

Aluminium-ion batteries are a class of rechargeable battery in which aluminium ions serve as charge carriers. Aluminium can exchange three electrons per ion. This means that insertion of one Al3+ is equivalent to three Li+ ions. Thus, since the ionic radii of Al3+ (0.54 Å) and Li+ (0.76 Å) are similar, significantly higher numbers of electrons and Al3+ ions can be accepted by cathodes with little damage. Al has 50 times (23.5 megawatt-hours m-3) the energy density of Li and is even higher than coal.

Research in lithium-ion batteries has produced many proposed refinements of lithium-ion batteries. Areas of research interest have focused on improving energy density, safety, rate capability, cycle durability, flexibility, and reducing cost.

A magnesium–sulfur battery is a rechargeable battery that uses magnesium ion as its charge carrier, magnesium metal as anode and sulfur as cathode. To increase the electronic conductivity of cathode, sulfur is usually mixed with carbon to form a cathode composite. Magnesium–sulfur battery is an emerging energy storage technology and now is still in the stage of research. It is of great interest since in theory the Mg/S chemistry can provide 1722 Wh/kg energy density with a voltage at ~1.7 V.

A zinc-ion battery or Zn-ion battery (abbreviated as ZIB) uses zinc ions (Zn2+) as the charge carriers. Specifically, ZIBs utilize Zn metal as the anode, Zn-intercalating materials as the cathode, and a Zn-containing electrolyte. Generally, the term zinc-ion battery is reserved for rechargeable (secondary) batteries, which are sometimes also referred to as rechargeable zinc metal batteries (RZMB). Thus, ZIBs are different than non-rechargeable (primary) batteries which use zinc, such as alkaline or zinc–carbon batteries.

The glass battery is a type of solid-state battery. It uses a glass electrolyte and lithium or sodium metal electrodes.

Calcium (ion) batteries are energy storage and delivery technologies (i.e., electro–chemical energy storage) that employ calcium ions (cations), Ca2+, as the active charge carrier. Calcium (ion) batteries remain an active area of research, with studies and work persisting in the discovery and development of electrodes and electrolytes that enable stable, long-term battery operation. Calcium batteries are rapidly emerging as a recognized alternative to Li-ion technology due to their similar performance, significantly greater abundance, and lower cost.

A solid-state silicon battery or silicon-anode all-solid-state battery is a type of rechargeable lithium-ion battery consisting of a solid electrolyte, solid cathode, and silicon-based solid anode.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the lithium-ion battery</span> Overview of the events of the development of lithium-ion battery

This is a history of the lithium-ion battery.

References

  1. 1 2 Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §3.
  2. ↑ Blake, Ivan C. (August 1952), "Silver Chloride-Magnesium Reserve Battery", Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 99 (8): 202C, doi: 10.1149/1.2779735
  3. ↑ Crompton, Thomas Roy (2000), Battery Reference Book, §39
  4. ↑ Office, U. S. Government Accountability (26 Sep 1985), Army's Procurement of Batteries: Magnesium vs. Lithium, US Government Accountability Office
  5. ↑ Zhang, Tianran; Tao, Zhanliang; Chen, Jun (Mar 2014), "Magnesium–air batteries: From principle to application", Materials Horizons, 1 (2): 196–206, doi:10.1039/c3mh00059a
  6. ↑ Rechargeable Magnesium Ion Batteries Based on Nanostructured Tungsten Disulfide Cathodes Batteries 2022
  7. 1 2 Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, p.1292, col.2.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Gerbrand Ceder, Pieremanuele Canepa (February 2017), "Odyssey of Multivalent Cathode Materials: Open Questions and Future Challenges" (PDF), Chemical Reviews, 117 (5): 4287–4341, doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00614 , PMID   28269988
  9. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, p.1292, col.1.
  10. ↑ Orikasa et al 2014, Introduction.
  11. ↑ Novak, Petr; Shklover, V.; Nesper, R. (1994). "Magnesium Insertion in Vanadium Oxides: A Structural Study". Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 185: 51–68. doi:10.1524/zpch.1994.185.part_1.051. S2CID   101615877.
  12. ↑ Bruce, Peter; Krok, F.; Nowinski, Jan; Gibson, Vernon; Tavvakoli, K (1991). "Chemical intercalation of magnesium into solid hosts". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 1 (4): 705–706. doi:10.1039/JM9910100705.
  13. ↑ Aurbach, Doron; Lu, Z.; Schecter, A.; Gizbar, H; Turgeman, R.; Cohen, Y.; Moskovich, M.; Levi, E. (2000). "Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries". Nature. 407 (6805): 724–727. Bibcode:2000Natur.407..724A. doi:10.1038/35037553. PMID   11048714. S2CID   4394214.
  14. ↑ Bella, Federico; et al. (2021). "An overview on anodes for magnesium batteries: challenges towards a promising storage solution for renewables". Nanomaterials. 11 (3): 810. doi: 10.3390/nano11030810 . PMC   8004101 . PMID   33809914.
  15. ↑ Bella, Federico, Stefano De Luca, Lucia Fagiolari, Daniele Versaci, Julia Amici, Carlotta Francia, and Silvia Bodoardo. 2021. "An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables" Nanomaterials 11, no. 3: 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030810
  16. ↑ Bucur, Claudiu B.; Gregory, Thomas; Oliver, Allen G.; Muldoon, John (2015), "Confession of a Magnesium Battery", J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 6 (18): 3578–3591, doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b01219, PMID   26722727
  17. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, § 1.1.
  18. ↑ Computational study of Mg3Bi2 anodes Chemical Physics Letters 2022
  19. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §1.2.
  20. ↑ Singh, N; Arthur, Timothy S.; Ling, C.; Matsui, M.; Mizuno, F. (2013). "A high energy-density tin anode for rechargeable magnesium-ion batteries". Chemical Communications. 49 (2): 149–151. doi:10.1039/c2cc34673g. PMID   23168386. S2CID   13471874.
  21. ↑ Nguyen, D.-T.; Song, S.-W. (2016). "Magnesium Storage Performance and Surface Film Formation Behavior of Tin Anode Material". ChemElectroChem. 3 (11): 1813–1819. doi:10.1002/celc.201600400.
  22. ↑ Nguyen, D.-T.; Song, S.-W. (2017). "Magnesium stannide as a high-capacity anode material for magnesium-ion batteries". Journal of Power Sources. 368: 11–17. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.054.
  23. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §2; Fig.1, p.1293.
  24. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §2.
  25. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, Table 1, p.1298.
  26. 1 2 Zhao-Karger, Zhirong; Bardaji, Maria Elisa Gil; Fuhr, Olaf; Fichtner, Maximilian (2017). "A new class of non-corrosive, highly efficient electrolytes for rechargeable magnesium batteries". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 5 (22): 10815–10820. doi:10.1039/C7TA02237A. ISSN   2050-7496. S2CID   99093669.
  27. ↑ Aurbach, D.; Lu, Z.; Schechter, A.; Gofer, Y.; Gizbar, H.; Turgeman, R.; Cohen, Y.; Moshkovich, M.; Levi, E. (2000). "Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries". Nature. 407 (6805): 724–727. Bibcode:2000Natur.407..724A. doi:10.1038/35037553. PMID   11048714. S2CID   4394214.
  28. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §2 "In the early 2000, Aurbach et al. reported a breakthrough which constituted preparing an electrolyte with higher oxidative stability (2.5 V vs Mg) than the organoborates (1.9 V vs Mg for Mg(BPh2Bu2)2) by combining a Grignard reagent with aluminum-based Lewis acids ". p.1296, col.2.
  29. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §2.1.
  30. ↑ Van Noorden, Richard (5 Mar 2014), "The rechargeable revolution: A better battery", www.nature.com, vol. 507, no. 7490, pp. 26–28, Bibcode:2014Natur.507...26V, doi: 10.1038/507026a , PMID   24598624
  31. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §2.1.5.
  32. ↑ Mizuno, Fuminori; Singh, Nikhilendra; Arthur, Timothy S.; Fanson, Paul T.; Ramanathan, Mayandi; Benmayza, Aadil; Prakash, Jai; Liu, Yi-Sheng; Glans, Per-Anders; Guo, Jinghua (11 November 2014), "Understanding and overcoming the challenges posed by electrode/electrolyte interfaces in rechargeable magnesium batteries", Front. Energy Res., 2, doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2014.00046
  33. 1 2 Dong, Hui; Liang, Yanliang; Tutusaus, Oscar; Zhang, Ye; Hao, Fang; Yao, Yan; Mohtadi, Rana (20 Mar 2019), "Directing Mg-Storage Chemistry in Organic Polymers toward High-Energy Mg Batteries", Joule, 3 (3): 782–793, Bibcode:2019Joule...3..782D, doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2018.11.022
  34. ↑ Zhao-Karger, Zhirong; Fichtner, Maximilian (2019). "Beyond Intercalation Chemistry for Rechargeable Mg Batteries: A Short Review and Perspective". Frontiers in Chemistry. 6: 656. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00656 . ISSN   2296-2646. PMC   6341060 . PMID   30697538.
  35. ↑ Kim, Hee Soo; Arthur, Timothy S.; Allred, Gary D.; Zajicek, Jaroslav; Newman, John G.; Rodnyansky, Alexander E.; Oliver, Allen G.; Boggess, William C.; Muldoon, John (2011-08-09). "Structure and compatibility of a magnesium electrolyte with a sulphur cathode". Nature Communications. 2 (1): 427. Bibcode:2011NatCo...2..427K. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1435 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   3266610 . PMID   21829189.
  36. ↑ Zhao-Karger, Zhirong; Zhao, Xiangyu; Fuhr, Olaf; Fichtner, Maximilian (2013-08-28). "Bisamide based non-nucleophilic electrolytes for rechargeable magnesium batteries". RSC Advances. 3 (37): 16330–16335. Bibcode:2013RSCAd...316330Z. doi:10.1039/C3RA43206H. ISSN   2046-2069.
  37. ↑ Zhao-Karger, Zhirong; Zhao, Xiangyu; Wang, Di; Diemant, Thomas; Behm, R. Jürgen; Fichtner, Maximilian (2015). "Performance Improvement of Magnesium Sulfur Batteries with Modified Non-Nucleophilic Electrolytes". Advanced Energy Materials. 5 (3): 1401155. Bibcode:2015AdEnM...501155Z. doi:10.1002/aenm.201401155. ISSN   1614-6840. S2CID   96659406.
  38. ↑ Zhao-Karger, Zhirong; Liu, Runyu; Dai, Wenxu; Li, Zhenyou; Diemant, Thomas; Vinayan, B. P.; Bonatto Minella, Christian; Yu, Xingwen; Manthiram, Arumugam; Behm, R. Jürgen; Ruben, Mario (2018-08-10). "Toward Highly Reversible Magnesium–Sulfur Batteries with Efficient and Practical Mg[B(hfip)4]2 Electrolyte". ACS Energy Letters. 3 (8): 2005–2013. doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.8b01061. S2CID   105109724.
  39. 1 2 Casey, Tina (2024-02-22). "Magnesium Batteries Are Beginning To Give Up Their Secrets". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
  40. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §3.3.
  41. ↑ Walter, Marc; Kravchyk, Kostiantyn V.; Ibáñez, Maria; Kovalenko, Maksym V. (2015), "Efficient and Inexpensive Sodium–Magnesium Hybrid Battery", Chem. Mater., 27 (21): 7452–7458, doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b03531
  42. ↑ Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, §3.4.
  43. ↑ Bayliss, R.; Key, Baris; Gautam, G.S.; Canepa, P.; Kwon, B.J.; Lapidus, Saul; Dogan, F.; Adil, A.A.; Lipton, A.; Baker, P.J.; Ceder, G.; Vaughey, J.; Cabana, J. (2020), "Probing Mg Migration in Spinel Oxides", Chemistry of Materials, 32 (2): 663–670, doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b02450, S2CID   214407047
  44. ↑ Kwon, Bob Jin; Yin, Liang; Park, Haesun; Parajuli, Prakash; Kumar, Khagesh; Kim, Sanghyeon; Yang, Mengxi; Murphy, Megan; Zapol, Peter; Liao, Chen; Fister, Timothy T.; Klie, Robert F.; Cabana, Jordi; Vaughey, John T.; Lapidus, Saul H.; Key, Baris (August 11, 2020). "High Voltage Mg-Ion Battery Cathode via a Solid Solution Cr–Mn Spinel Oxide". Chemistry of Materials. 32 (15): 6577–6587. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.0c01988. OSTI   1756770. S2CID   225363993.
  45. ↑ Hancock, J.; Griffith, K.J.; Choi, Y.; Bartel, C.; Lapidus, S.; Vaughey, J.; Ceder, G.; Poeppelmeier, K. (2022), "Expanding the Ambient-Pressure Phase Space of CaFe2O4-Type Sodium Postspinel Host–Guest Compounds", ACS Org. Inorg. Au, 8 (1): 8–22, doi: 10.1021/acsorginorgau.1c00019 , PMC   9954301 , PMID   36855408, S2CID   239241672
  46. ↑ Orikasa et al 2014.
  47. ↑ NuLi, Yanna; Yang, Jun; Wang, Jiulin; Li, Yun (2009), "Electrochemical Intercalation of Mg2+ in Magnesium Manganese Silicate and Its Application as High-Energy Rechargeable Magnesium Battery Cathode", J. Phys. Chem. C, 113 (28): 12594–12597, doi:10.1021/jp903188b
  48. ↑ Bitenc, Jan; Pirnat, Klemen; Bančič, Tanja; Gaberšček, Miran; Genorio, Boštjan; Randon-Vitanova, Anna; Dominko, Robert (21 Dec 2015), "Anthraquinone-Based Polymer as Cathode in Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries", ChemSusChem, 8 (24): 4128–4132, Bibcode:2015ChSCh...8.4128B, doi:10.1002/cssc.201500910, PMID   26610185
  49. ↑ Zhang, Zhengcheng; Zhang, Sheng Shui, eds. (2015), "Rechargeable Batteries: Materials, Technologies and New Trends", Green Energy and Technology: 629, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-15458-9, ISBN   978-3-319-15457-2
  50. ↑ Tian, Huajun; Gao, Tao; Li, Xiaogang; Wang, Xiwen; Luo, Chao; Fan, Xiulin; Yang, Chongyin; Suo, Liumin; Ma, Zhaohui; Han, Weiqiang; Wang, Chunsheng (10 January 2017), "High power rechargeable magnesium/iodine battery chemistry", Nature Communications, 8 (14083 (2017)): 14083, Bibcode:2017NatCo...814083T, doi:10.1038/ncomms14083, PMC   5234091 , PMID   28071666

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.