Manichaean art

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The seal of Mani, the oldest known Manichaean art Seal of Mani (cleaned up). Seal with figure of Mani, possibly 3rd century CE, possibly Irak. Cabinet des Medailles, Paris.jpg
The seal of Mani, the oldest known Manichaean art

Manichaeism has a rich tradition of visual art, starting with Mani himself writing the Book of Pictures. [1]

Contents

One of Mani's primary beliefs was that the arts (namely painting, calligraphy, and music) were of the same esteem as the divine spirit (Middle Persian: Mihryazd), believing that the creation of art was comparable to god's creation of living forms, and therefore the experience of art was more of a divine act than any other in the material world. [2] Throughout the history of Manichaeism, didactic books of paintings were used to illustrate the religion's teachings and beliefs. From the beginning, the prophet Mani envisioned his religion (which included the teachings of Zarathustra, Buddha, and Christ) as a universal and therefore “transcultural” entity, leading to its vast spread from Europe to Asia. The Manichaean mission employed multifaceted means of communication (including oral, textual, and pictorial) so the beliefs may adapt to the variety of cultures it entered. These picture books covered the primary themes of Manichaeism, such as its dualism of light and darkness, maps of a religious universe, the process of human salvation, as well as various Manichaean prophets and deities, and were considered principal pieces of the Manichaean canon. [3]

On the subject of Mani's original paintings, Dr. Zsuzsanna Gulácsi notes that the “paintings were created first in mid-third century Mesopotamia with direct involvement from Mani ... and were later preserved by being copied and adapted to a wide variety of artistic and cultural norms, as the religion spread across the Asian continent.” [4] Gulácsi points to the Yuan-era silk paintings Manichaean Diagram of the Universe and Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation as examples of sinicized variations of Mani's tradition of using a Book of Pictures as a method of teaching, specifically providing insight into the cosmology of the era's Chinese Manichaeism. [4] After the discovery of fragmentary pieces of Uyghur-Manichean art [5] in the ruins of Turfan, Western Regions, scholars began turning to the newly uncovered remains of Manichaean book art in order to assess through the fragments what could resemble the original style of the Arzhang. [6]

Illuminated manuscripts

Manichaean illuminated manuscripts are best known from a series of four manuscripts found in Gaochang Xinjiang

They were collected in Germany Berlin Asian Art Museum, drawn during the 8th-9th centuries, Was discovered in Xinjiang by German Turpan expedition team in the early 20th century. They are illuminated manuscripts with illustrations on both sides [7]

In addition the Sogdian-language Manichaean letter, also discovered in Xinjiang contains illustrations of two women dancing, it was found in the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves [8] [9]

Silk paintings

Eight Silk Painting Atlas Collection of Chinese Manichaean Hanging Scrolls.jpg
Eight Silk Painting Atlas

Eight silk hanging scrolls with Manichaean didactic images from southern China from between the 12th and the 15th centuries, which can be divided into four categories:

Two single portraits (depicting Mani and Jesus)
One scroll depicting Salvation Theory (Soteriology)
Four scrolls depicting Prophetology (Prophetology)
One scroll depicting Cosmology (Cosmology)

Murals, reliefs, and banners

Manichaeism has a rich legacy of temple art including Manichaean stone reliefs of Shangwan village, Manichaean temple banner MIK III 6286, Manichaean wall painting MIK III 6918, and Veneration of the Tree of Life

Manichaean temple banner MIK III 6286 and Manichaean wall painting MIK III 6918 were both found by the German Turfan expeditions in Gaochang Xinjiang [10] [11]

Veneration of the Tree of Life was found in Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, also in Xinjiang [12]

The Manichaean stone reliefs of Shangwan village were discovered in Fujian in 2009 [13] and the origins of the Buddha of Light at Cao'an were only rediscovered in the 1920s [14]

Influence

Following the discovery of Manichaean paintings in Turfan, art historian Thomas W. Arnold suggested that the Manichaean tradition of illustrative bookmaking was the source of Persian miniature painting style during the time of the Safavid Empire; Arnold stated: “The only other religious art that could have produced these pictures was the Manichaean, the Eastern Character of the types of face and figure, and the similarity in technical details to the Manichaean paintings that have survived in Central Asia, suggest that this is the source to which these strange pictures must be traced back.” [1] Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, the most famous of the Persian miniature painters, was praised by the contemporaneous Afghan historian Albdulkarim Khondamir, who wrote; “[Behzād’s] Mani-like brushwork overwhelmed all other painters.” [15] From her studies of the fragments, Zsuzsanna Gulácsi concluded that a set of the artwork come from an authentically Manichaean book of pictures, harboring elements (such as the iconography, brush style, and use of colors) that originated in Mani's original Arzhang and were turned into the traditional painting style of future generations of Manichaeans. [16] Additionally, the Turfan fragments possess a primarily Persian appearance, specifically similar to the art that has survived from the Sassanid era (during which Mani lived), with such identifiable elements as the quality of the lines, the simplicity of the faces, and the exuberant amount of detail in the folds of the garments. These similarities link the Turfan fragments to what is known of art in the Greater Iran area before the arrival of Islam. [17]

Detail of the Manichaean Diagram of the Universe, c. 13th-14th century Yuen dynasty Manichaean diagram of the Universe (cropped).jpg
Detail of the Manichaean Diagram of the Universe, c. 13th-14th century

The Buddhist practice known as e-toki (絵解(き), meaning "picture deciphering, picture explaining”) was used by the Japanese Pure Land Buddhists as a method of teaching, beginning in China as early as 931 AD. Etoki performances typically filled halls with vertical scrolls that illustrated the story of the Buddha and various Buddhist principles. Like Buddhism itself, this practice spread into Japan from China. The scrolls also often illustrated the life of Prince Shōtoku, who is credited as the founder of Japanese Buddhism. [3] During the Yuan dynasty and the Ming dynasty (during which the Hongwu Emperor banned Manichaeism in 1370), the Monijiao Manichaeans in southern China became close to the Pure Land Mahayana Buddhists, synthesizing the tradition of didcatic illustration that began with the Arzhang with the formal attributes of the hanging scrolls used in e-toki, while also syncretizing Buddhist and Manichaean beliefs. [18]

Mani presenting an illustration to King Bahram I in a painting by Ali-Shir Nava'i, c. 16th century Mani Bukhram-Gur.jpg
Mani presenting an illustration to King Bahram I in a painting by Ali-Shir Nava'i, c. 16th century

An Islamic account of Mani's life described the prophet as a painter who founded a sectarian movement against the Zoroastrian state religion of Sassanid Persia under Shapur I. Prompted by threats, Mani fled to Turkestan, where he gained followers and painted a few temples (incidentally, a few paintings in Bamyan are attributed to Mani). Mani then spent a year in the solitude of a cave after telling his followers that he was going to heaven. After the year, Mani returned with the Arzhang, which he said he had brought down from heaven. After the death of Shapur, he and a large procession of followers returned to Persia. According to this account, the new king Bahram I received and favored Mani, but he was later flayed alive for his heresies. [19] In a 16th-century painting by Ali-Shir Nava'i from modern-day Uzbekistan, Mani is shown at the throne Bahram as the king inspects one of the prophet's illustrations.

In Islamic tradition (excluding Ibn al-Nadim’s account of Mani’s life) Mani is referred to as "Mani the Painter", almost always replacing the topos of "Founder of a Religion". [20] In addition, Arzhang is the name of the daeva (demon) in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh who takes Kay Kāvus to Mazanderan, and whom Rostam defeats in his sixth trial. The word "arzhang" meaning "worthy" in Middle Persian is likely the reason for the shared names, although it is coincidental (if Thomas W. Arnold's theory on the Manichaean origin of Persian miniature painting is correct) that the character of Arzhang first would've been illustrated in the style of the Arzhang.

See also

Literature

Related Research Articles

<i>Arzhang</i> Disappeared holy book of the Manichaean religion

The Arzhang, also known as the Book of Pictures, was one of the holy books of Manichaeism. It was written and illustrated by its prophet, Mani, in Syriac, with later reproductions written in Sogdian. It was unique as a sacred text in that it contained numerous pictures designed to portray Manichaean cosmogony, which were regarded as integral to the text.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese Manichaeism</span>

Chinese Manichaeism, also known as Monijiao (Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móníjiào; Wade–Giles: Mo2-ni2 Chiao4; lit. 'religion of Moni') or Mingjiao (Chinese: 明教; pinyin: Míngjiào; Wade–Giles: Ming2-Chiao4; lit. 'religion of light or 'bright religion'), is the form of Manichaeism transmitted to and currently practiced in China. Chinese Manichaeism rose to prominence during the Tang dynasty and despite frequent persecutions, it has continued long after the other forms of Manichaeism were eradicated in the West. The most complete set of surviving Manichaean writings were written in Chinese sometime before the 9th century and were found in the Mogao Caves among the Dunhuang manuscripts.

The Manichaean Diagram of the Universe is a Yuan dynasty silk painting describing the cosmology of Manichaeism, in other words, the structure of universe according to Manichaean vision. The painting in vivid colours on a silk cloth survives in three parts, whose proper relation to one another and digital reconstruction was published by Zsuzsanna Gulácsi.

<i>Sermon on Manis Teaching of Salvation</i> Yuan dynasty silk painting

Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation is a Yuan dynasty silk hanging scroll, measuring 142 × 59 centimetres and dating from the 13th century, with didactic themes: a multi-scenic narrative that depicts Mani's Teachings about the Salvation combines a sermon subscene with the depictions of soteriological teaching in the rest of the painting.

<i>Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus</i> Painting of Jesus Christ as a Manichaean Prophet

The Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus (Chinese: 夷數佛幀; pinyin: Yí shù fó zhēn; Wade–Giles: I2-shu4 fo2-chên1; Japanese: キリスト聖像; rōmaji: Kirisuto Sei-zō; lit. 'Sacred Image of Christ'), is a Chinese Southern Song dynasty silk hanging scroll preserved at the Seiunji Temple in Kōshū, Yamanashi, Japan. It measures 153.5 cm in height, 58.7 cm in width, dates from the 12th to 13th centuries, and depicts a solitary nimbate figure on a dark-brown medieval Chinese silk. According to the Hungarian historian Zsuzsanna Gulácsi, this painting is one of the six documented Chinese Manichaean hanging scrolls from Zhejiang province from the early 12th century, which titled Yishu fo zhen (lit. "Silk Painting of the Buddha [Prophet] Jesus").

Zsuzsanna Gulácsi is a Hungarian-born American historian, art historian of pan-Asiatic religions. She is a professor of art history, Asian studies, and comparative religious studies at Northern Arizona University (NAU). Her teaching covers Early and Eastern Christian art, Islamic art, with special attention to the medium of the illuminated book; as well as late ancient and mediaeval Buddhist art from South, Central, and East Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jesus in Manichaeism</span> Jesus as portrayed in Manichaeism

In Manichaeism, Jesus is considered one of the four prophets of the faith, along with Zoroaster, Gautama Buddha and Mani. He is also a "guiding deity" who greets the light bodies of the righteous after their deliverance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manichaean temple banner MIK III 6286</span> Manichaean monastery flag banner

Manichaean Temple Banner Number "MIK Ⅲ 6286" is a Manichaean monastery flag banner collected in Berlin Asian Art Museum, made in the 10th century AD. It was found in Xinjiang Gaochang by a German Turpan expedition team at the beginning of the 20th century. The flag streamer is 45.5 cm long and 16 cm wide, with painted portraits on both sides. It is a funeral streamer dedicated to the deceased Manichae believers.

<i>Birth of Mani</i> Manichean silk cloth color painting

The Birth of Mani is a Manichean silk cloth color painting painted in the Fujian Zhejiang area during the Yuan period, depicting the founder of the sect Mani The scene of birth, a scholar who specializes in Manichaeism Ma Xiaohe called it "a rare treasure". This picture is now in the collection of Japan Kyushu National Museum. The drawing technique and artistic style are similar to "Mani's Community Established" and "Mani's Parents", "The Birth of Mani" and "Manichean Universe Map". " It was originally part of a large-scale Manichean silk painting; however, now the silk painting has been lost, leaving only the birth picture.

<i>Episodes from Manis Missionary Work</i> Manichean silk color painting

Episodes from Mani's Missionary Work is a Manichean silk color painting drawn in the coastal area of southern China during the yuan to ming period. It is now in a private Japanese collection. The whole picture can be roughly divided into five scenes, depicting the missionary process of a Manichean elector. According to Hungary Asian religious art historian Zsuzsanna Gulácsi, this priest is probably the founder of Manichaeism Mani himself. This painting was originally part of a large-scale Manichean silk painting. The drawing technique and artistic style are similar to "Mani's Community Established" and "Mani's Parents", "The Birth of Mani" and "Manichean Universe Map".

Icon of Mani is a silk painting hanging scroll from the Yuan or Ming period, from the coastal area of southern China, depicting Mani. The portrait of the founder Mani has been completely Sinicized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4974</span> Manichaean manuscript fragment

Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4974 is a fragment of Manichaean manuscripts collected in Germany Berlin Asian Art Museum, drawn in the 10th century, 20 At the beginning of the century, it was discovered by German Turpan expedition team in Xinjiang Gaochang Ancient City. The remaining page is 7.9 cm long and 15.5 cm wide, with an illuminated manuscript illustration drawn in the center of the front. The upper part of the book is written with Middle Persian Benediction The scriptures indicate that this fragment originally belonged to a Manichae Liturgical book.

<i>Manis Community Established</i> Manichaen silk color painting

Mani's Community Established is a Manichaen silk color painting drawn in the coastal area of southern China during the yuan to ming period, depicts the missionary history of Manichaeism and the establishment of its churches in three scenes. The preservation is intact and undamaged. This painting was originally part of a large Manichae silk painting, The drawing technique and artistic style are very similar to "Episodes from Mani's Missionary Work", "The Birth of Mani", "Mani's Parents" and "The Manichean Universe Map". The painting is now in a private collection in Japan.

<i>Manis Parents</i> Color painting on silk

Mani's Parents is a color painting on silk drawn in the coastal areas of southern China during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. It is in the collection of the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, US, and was donated by Ivory Brendage. The title given on the official website of the museum is "Fragment of a Manichaen Mandala".

<i>Manichaean wall painting MIK III 6918</i> Fragment of a mural from Xinjiang, China

Fragment of Manichaean Wall Painting "MIK Ⅲ 6918" is a fragment of a Manichaean mural collected in Germany Berlin Asian Art Museum, painted around the 10th century AD, and was found by the German Turpan expedition team in the ruins of Gaochang, in Xinjiang. The fragment is 88 centimeters long and 168.5 centimeters wide. It depicts a scene of worship in a Manichae church.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sealstone of Mani</span> Manichaean relic

The crystal seal of Mani, also known as the crystal sealstone of Mani or the Manichean Rock-Crystal Seal, is a crystal stone seal with intaglio busts of three Manichean elect. There is a circle of Syriac writing around the intaglio, which could have been a personal seal used by Mani, the founder of Manichaeism. It is the oldest surviving piece of Manichaean art, and the only piece from Sassanid Mesopotamia. It is now in the collection of the National Library of France in Paris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 8259</span> Manichaean Manuscript Fragment

Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 8259 is a fragment of Manichaean manuscripts collected in Germany Berlin Asian Art Museum, drawn during the 8th–9th centuries. It was discovered in Xinjiang by German Turpan expedition team in the early 20th century. It is the largest currently known manuscript fragment, and is also the largest codex fragment with a figural scene, having a large portion of text on the same fragment. There is also text on the reverse of the image.

The Manichaean Turpan documents found in Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves include many documents and works of Manichaean art found by the German Turfan expeditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Buddha in Manichaeism</span>

In Manichaeism, Siddartha Gautama is considered one of the four prophets of the faith, along with Zoroaster, Jesus and Mani. Mani believed that the teachings of Gautama Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the "Religion of Light".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zarathustra in Manichaeism</span>

In Manichaeism, Zarathustra is considered one of the four prophets of the faith, along with Buddha, Jesus and Mani. Mani believed that the teachings of Gautama Buddha, Zarathustra, and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the "Religion of Light".

References

  1. 1 2 Arnold, Thomas (1924). Survivals of Sasanian and Manichaean Art in Persian painting. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 23–24.
  2. ↑ Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1982). Manichaean Art And Calligraphy. New York: Brill. p. 60. ISBN   9004064788.
  3. 1 2 Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (June 29, 2011). "Searching for Mani's Picture Book in Textual and Pictorial Sources". Transcultural Studies. 1 (2011). doi:10.11588/ts.2011.1.6173 . Retrieved December 9, 2019.
  4. 1 2 Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2015). Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China. "Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies" series. Vol. 90. Leiden: Brill Publishers. p. 440. ISBN   9789004308947.
  5. ↑ Manichaean Art in Berlin Collections, "Corpus Fontium Manichaeorum : Series Archaeologica et Iconographica" (vol. 1). Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2001 (The book translated into Persian by Sonia Mirzaie, Tehran: Iranian Academy of Arts, 2023
  6. ↑ Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1982). Manichaean Art And Calligraphy. New York: Brill. p. 231. ISBN   9004064788.
  7. ↑ Härtel, Herbert; Yaldiz, Marianne; Kunst (Germany), Museum für Indische; N.Y.), Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York (1982). Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums : an Exhibition Lent by the Museum Für Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN   978-0-87099-300-8.
  8. ↑ Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2005). Mediaeval Manichaean Book Art: A Codicological Study of Iranian And Turkic Illuminated Book Fragments from 8th-11th Century East Central Asia. "Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies" series. Vol. 57. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 56, 180. ISBN   9789004139947.
  9. ↑ "Mani Sutra" (PDF). National Library of China (in Simplified Chinese). 2011. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  10. ↑ Gulacsi, Zsuzsanna. ""A Song Dynasty Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus [幅宋代摩尼教<夷数佛帧> = Yifu Songdai Monijiao Yishufozheng]." Journal for the Study of Art History [艺术史研究 =Yishushi Yanjiu] 2008:139-189 [in Chinese]".
  11. ↑ Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2015). Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China . "Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies" series. Vol. 90. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN   9789004308947.
  12. ↑ Ma Jian (2006-11-01). "Remains of Manichaeism in Turpan". dsr.nii.ac.jp (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved 2019-05-02.
  13. ↑ 鍾明, ed. (2010-04-26). "《倚天屠龍記》明教遺跡藏閩霞浦小山村 (組圖)". culture.china.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2018-12-14.
  14. ↑ Lieu 1992 , p. 304
  15. ↑ Soudavar, Abolala (1992). Art of the Persian Courts. New York: Rizzoli. p. 95. ISBN   0847816605.
  16. ↑ Gulacsi, Zsuzsanna (2005). Mediaeval Manichaean Book Art. Boston: Brill. p. 219. ISBN   900413994X.
  17. ↑ Gulacsi, Zsuzsanna (2005). Mediaeval Manichaean Book Art. Boston: Brill. p. 7. ISBN   900413994X.
  18. ↑ Dr. Char Yar. "Monijiao (Manichaeism) in China". academia.edu. Lecture presented at the Worldwide Conference for Historical Research, 2012.
  19. ↑ John M. Robertson, Pagan Christs (2nd ed. 1911), § 14. The Problem of Manichæus, online at http://www.sacred-texts.com
  20. ↑ W. Sundermann, "Al-Fehrest, iii. Representation of Manicheism." Archived 2012-05-17 at the Wayback Machine , Encyclopaedia Iranica , 1999.
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