Milkshaking

Last updated

A milkshake served in a disposable container Five Guys banana milkshake (40878734941).jpg
A milkshake served in a disposable container

Milkshaking is the act of throwing milkshakes and other drinks at targets as a means of political protest in a manner similar to egging or pieing. The target of a milkshaking is splashed or splattered with a milkshake that is thrown from a cup or bottle. [1] [2] The trend gained popularity in the United Kingdom in May 2019 during the European Parliament election and was used against right-wing and far-right political candidates, such as Tommy Robinson, Nigel Farage and Carl Benjamin, as well as other members of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and the Brexit Party. [3] [4]

Contents

History

The practice and its use in targeting right-wing politicians is believed to have gained popularity following the egging of far-right, anti-immigrant, anti-Muslim [5] [6] politician Fraser Anning in Australia by a teenager in March 2019, which was met with a violent response from Anning. [2] British far-right activist Tommy Robinson was "milkshaked" in May 2019, having one thrown as a projectile in Bury on May 1st, and another thrown the following day in Warrington while campaigning. [7] Robinson responded to the second incident by punching the milkshake thrower, who said he'd thrown the dessert in response to harassment from Robinson and his supporters. Since the event, the thrower said he had received death threats on social media. [8] UKIP candidate Carl Benjamin was milkshaked four times that month while campaigning in Salisbury, Truro, and Totnes. [4]

Brexit Party leader Nigel Farage was hit by a Five Guys milkshake in Newcastle upon Tyne on 20 May 2019 by a 32-year-old Brexit opponent [9] who was arrested by police for common assault. [10] Farage later blamed the rise of milkshaking on "radicalised Remainers" and said that it disrupted campaigning. [11] A spoof JustGiving campaign was set up to crowdfund the purchase of a new suit for Farage following the milkshaking, while instead donating its proceeds to a cancer charity. [12] A few days later, Farage was reportedly trapped on his campaign bus after arriving in Kent to speak to supporters, as a group of people holding milkshakes watched nearby. [13] In June 2019, Farage's milkshaker pleaded guilty to common assault and criminally damaging Farage's microphone, and was given 150 hours of unpaid work and ordered to pay £ 520. [14] An online fundraiser raised more than £650 to cover this cost, within hours of sentencing. [14]

A McDonald's restaurant in Edinburgh was asked by local police to stop selling the drink during Nigel Farage's campaign visit in May 2019. [15] Burger King responded on Twitter by advertising its milkshakes in Scotland. [2] The act in general was criticised by several political commentators, including former Prime Minister Tony Blair, for being a gateway to political violence, while others argued it was harmless protesting. [1] [16] [17] [18] [ excessive citations ]

In anticipation of U.S. President Donald Trump's state visit to the United Kingdom in June 2019, the group "Milkshakes Against Racism" organised a gathering at Trafalgar Square to greet him with milkshakes as a symbol of protest. [19] A pro-Trump supporter was struck in the face by a milkshake during protests on 4 June. [20]

U.S. Congressman Matt Gaetz was reported to have been the first U.S. politician to be milkshaked, at a town hall event in Pensacola, Florida in June 2019, but the drink was later described as an unidentified "red liquid" by police. [21]

Right-wing activist Andy Ngo was sprayed with Silly String by antifascists in Portland, Oregon on 30 June 2019, before also having a milkshake thrown at him. Portland police initially tweeted that they had received reports of a milkshake containing quick-drying cement, [22] [23] [24] which was widely transmitted although no proof of these claims was presented and the claim has been generally treated as a hoax. [25] [26] [27] The Portland Police Bureau later said that the tweet had been made after an officer had observed a cement-like powder on at least one milkshake cup. This claim was investigated by Willamette Week, which found that police had no physical evidence of any such thing occurring, and that no journalist had published any photo evidence or witness reports of such an activity. [28] Ngo sued three people for the attack, and received a $300,000 judgement after the defendants did not appear in court, resulting in a default ruling. [29]

On 27 September 2019, Justin Barrett, leader of the Irish far-right National Party, was milkshaked in Galway. [30] In the wake of the incident, the student who threw the milkshake at Barrett reportedly received targeted abuse and threats from far-right extremists. [31] In September 2020, a smoothie was thrown at the Irish Tánaiste Leo Varadkar by an unknown person. Varadkar remarked that he thought he was being approached by Avril Lavigne. [32] The Irish Council for Civil Liberties voiced concern after it was revealed that the Garda Síochána were engaged in the profiling of left-wing activist women in an attempt to identify the assailant. [33]

In June 2024, whilst campaigning as Reform UK's candidate in the Clacton constituency for the 2024 United Kingdom general election Nigel Farage was hit with a McDonald's banana milkshake thrown by a 25-year-old woman who was later arrested. [34]

Analysis and ethics

The wave of milkshaking incidents in 2019 prompted discussion in the media regarding the reasons for it being adopted as a protest tactic and whether or not it was ethically justifiable. Philosopher Benjamin Franks suggested that the use of particular foodstuffs in political protest had historically been a practical matter, noting that whilst "nowadays, carrying raw eggs to a nationalist meeting would require some backstory to justify it if challenged by the police", until recently carrying a milkshake would not have aroused the same suspicion. He also argued that milkshaking "is clearly effective in making the victim feel uncomfortable and look ridiculous". [35] Ivan Gololobov, a politics academic at the University of Bath, highlighted the importance of "online follow-up" to modern protest politics, observing that milkshaking someone who was attempting to portray themselves as a serious and credible political figure was an effective way of undercutting their image. [35] Writing for Vice , Jazmine Sleman suggested that milkshaking was a form of dilemma action which created "a lose-lose situation for the opposition... because there's no good way to respond to a milkshaking". [36] The New Republic 's Matt Ford asserted that milkshaking was effective against far right leaders due to its potential for humiliating them: "nothing animates the far right or shapes its worldview quite so much as the desire to humiliate others—and the fear of being humiliated themselves". [37]

Regarding the milkshaking of Farage, Liberal Democrat Tim Farron tweeted that "Violence and intimidation are wrong no matter who they're aimed at. On top of that, it just makes the man a martyr, it's playing into his hands". [37] Writing for The Independent , Kate Townshend said that whilst she was opposed to far right politics, "on the one hand, nobody should have to walk around in fear of having things thrown at them, but on the other, a temporarily milky face is also just not a satisfying redress". [38] Josh Marshall wrote for Talking Points Memo that whilst he understood why the tactic had caught on, he disagreed with the practice, partly because he "wouldn't find it funny at all" if far right protestors milkshaked or pied liberal politicians, but also because "we place a great deal of societal importance on creating a line between words and physical autonomy... It's an impulse we shouldn’t set aside simply because we find someone loathsome". [39] Ricky Gervais tweeted that whilst he was pro-Remain, he was opposed to throwing items at people he disagreed with: "that would mean I had run out of good arguments. It would also mean I deserve a smack in the mouth". [40]

Brendan Cox, the widower of the murdered anti-Brexit Labour MP Jo Cox, said that whilst he opposed Farage's politics, he believed that throwing objects at political opponents "normalises violence and intimidation and we should consistently stand against it". [41]

Some observers took issue with the characterisation of milkshaking as an act of violence. Writing for the New Statesman , Jonn Elledge argued that "it is far less violent than, say, promising to 'pick up a rifle' if Brexit is not delivered", as Farage had done in 2017, and that "the idea that throwing a milkshake is violence, but that inciting hate against minority groups isn’t, is responsible for a decent-sized chunk of all the world's political problems". [42] Alexander Blanchard, a researcher at Queen Mary University of London, argued that milkshaking did not constitute violence, as "by nearly all accounts, political violence entails intentionally inflicting harm", whereas according to those involved in milkshaking, they at most aimed to humiliate their targets. He also highlighted the history of using "small and harmless projectiles" like eggs to being a sense of theatricality to political campaigning in Britain, holding that acts of milkshaking did not exceed this level of controversy. [43] Dan Kaszeta, a London-based security consultant who previously worked for the White House Military Office and the United States Secret Service, took issue with Sam Harris' claim that milkshakings were "mock assassinations", stating: "Acts of political protest happen. Acts of political violence happen. There is some overlap between the two. But throwing a milkshake, while fundamentally inappropriate, uncivil, and possibly criminal... isn't the same thing as throwing a brick or shooting a rifle". [18] Similarly, after Robinson was milkshaked, Conservative MP Johnny Mercer stated that "this is not political violence... It is a milkshake". [44] Muntadhar al-Zaidi, the journalist who threw his shoes at U.S. President George W. Bush, said, "Not many people are prepared to be jailed or tortured or face consequences for those types of actions" but did not consider milkshaking violent. [45]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UK Independence Party</span> British political party

The UK Independence Party is a Eurosceptic, right-wing populist political party in the United Kingdom. The party reached its greatest level of success in the mid-2010s, when it gained two members of parliament and was the largest party representing the UK in the European Parliament. The party is currently led by Nick Tenconi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milkshake</span> Cold dairy beverage

A milkshake is a sweet beverage made by blending milk, ice cream, and flavorings or sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce, chocolate syrup, or fruit syrup into a thick, sweet, cold mixture. It may also be made using a base made from non-dairy products, including plant milks such as almond milk, coconut milk, or soy milk. Dry ingredients such as whole fruit, nuts, seeds, candy, or cookies may be incorporated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nigel Farage</span> British politician and broadcaster (born 1964)

Nigel Paul Farage is a British politician and broadcaster who has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Clacton and Leader of Reform UK since 2024, having previously been its leader from 2019 to 2021. He was the leader of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) from 2006 to 2009 and 2010 to 2016. Farage served as a member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South East England from 1999 until the UK's withdrawal from the European Union (EU) in 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gerard Batten</span> Former leader of the UK Independence Party

Gerard Joseph Batten is a British politician who served as the Leader of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) from 2018 to 2019. He was a founding member of the party in 1993, and served as a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for London from 2004 to 2019.

<i>Spiked</i> (magazine) British Internet-based magazine

Spiked is a British Internet magazine focusing on politics, culture and society. The magazine was founded in 2001 with the same editor and many of the same contributors as Living Marxism, which had closed in 2000 after losing a case for libel brought by ITN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Egging</span> Throwing eggs at people or property

Egging is the act of throwing eggs at people or property. The eggs are usually raw, but can be hard-boiled or rotten.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hope not Hate</span> Advocacy group against racism and fascism, based in the United Kingdom

Hope not Hate is an advocacy group based in the United Kingdom which campaigns against racism and fascism. It has also mounted campaigns against Islamic extremism and antisemitism. It is self-described as a "non-partisan, non-sectarian organisation." The group was founded in 2004 by Nick Lowles, a former editor of the anti-fascist magazine Searchlight. It is backed by various politicians and celebrities, and it has also been backed by several trade unions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tommy Robinson</span> British far-right activist (born 1982)

Stephen Christopher Yaxley-Lennon, better known as Tommy Robinson, is an Irish anti-Islam campaigner and one of the UK's most prominent far-right activists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bill Etheridge</span> UKIP politician (born 1970)

William Milroy Etheridge is an English politician who was previously a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the West Midlands region. He was elected in 2014 as a UK Independence Party (UKIP) candidate, but left the party in October 2018 and joined the Libertarian Party. He joined the Brexit Party in 2019 but rejoined UKIP in September 2020. He unsuccessfully stood for UKIP leader in 2016, and 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy</span> Former political group in the European Parliament

Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy was a Eurosceptic and populist political group in the European Parliament. The EFDD group was a continuation for the Eighth European Parliament of the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) group that existed during the Seventh European Parliament, with significant changes to group membership.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom</span> 2019 election of members of the European Parliament for the United Kingdom

The 2019 European Parliament election was the United Kingdom's component of the 2019 European Parliament election. It was held on Thursday 23 May 2019 and the results announced on Sunday 26 and Monday 27 May 2019, after all the other EU countries had voted. This was the United Kingdom's final participation in a European Parliament election before leaving the European Union on 31 January 2020, and was also the last election to be held under the provisions of the European Parliamentary Elections Act 2002 before its repeal under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 and was the first European election in the United Kingdom to be held on a day that did not coincide with any local elections since 1999. This was the first of two national elections that would be held in the United Kingdom in 2019 with the 2019 general election being held six months later in December 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carl Benjamin</span> British YouTuber and political commentator (born 1979)

Carl Benjamin, also known by his online pseudonym Sargon of Akkad, is a British right-wing YouTuber and political commentator. A former member of the Eurosceptic UK Independence Party (UKIP), he was one of its unsuccessful candidates for the South West England constituency at the 2019 European Parliament election.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leave Means Leave</span> UK pro-Brexit political pressure group

Leave Means Leave was a pro-Brexit, Eurosceptic political pressure group organisation that campaigned and lobbied for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union following the 'Leave' result of the EU referendum on 23 June 2016. The campaign was co-chaired by British property entrepreneur Richard Tice and business consultant John Longworth. The vice-chairman was Leader of the Brexit Party, Nigel Farage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reform UK</span> Right-wing political party in the United Kingdom

Reform UK is a right-wing populist political party in the United Kingdom. Nigel Farage has served as the party's leader since June 2024 and Richard Tice has served as the party's deputy leader since July 2024. The party currently has five members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons and one member of the London Assembly. Following Farage's resumption of the leadership during the 2024 general election, there was a sharp increase in support for the party. In the election it was the third largest party by popular vote, with 14.3 per cent of the vote.

Catherine Blaiklock is an English nationalist politician, financial trader and hotelier who was the founder and first leader of the Brexit Party, a political party established in January 2019 to support a no-deal Brexit. She was forced to resign as leader in March 2019 when it was disclosed she had made anti-Islamic and racist statements online. Blaiklock had been the Economics Spokesperson for the UK Independence Party (UKIP), which she left in late 2018. Before entering politics in 2016, she worked as a financial currency and derivatives trader. She also founded a Nepali healthcare charity with her ex-husband, an Everest Sherpa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">55 Tufton Street</span> London building housing lobby groups related to pro-Brexit and climate change denial

55 Tufton Street is a four-storey Georgian-era townhouse on historic Tufton Street, in Westminster, London, owned by businessman Richard Smith. Since the 2010s the building has hosted a network of libertarian lobby groups and think tanks related to pro-Brexit, climate science denial and other fossil-fuel lobby groups. Some of the organisations it houses have close connections with those at 57 Tufton Street next door, including the Centre for Policy Studies and CapX.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andy Ngo</span> American right-wing author and influencer (born 1980s)

Andy Cuong Ngo is an American right-wing social media influencer, who is known for covering and video-recording demonstrators. He is a journalist and editor-at-large for The Post Millennial, a Canadian conservative news website, and a regular guest on Fox News. Ngo has published columns in the New York Post and The Wall Street Journal and authored a best selling book on Antifa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incidents of objects being thrown at politicians</span>

In various countries, objects have been thrown at politicians for reasons varying from comedic to harmful.

<i>Breaking Point</i> (UKIP poster) Poster by the UK Independence Party

Breaking Point was a poster released on 16 June 2016, during the final week of campaigning before the Brexit referendum. The poster was released by Nigel Farage of the UK Independence Party and depicted a photograph of Syrian refugees near the Croatia-Slovenia border in 2015, with the caption "breaking point" and "the EU has failed us all".

An election took place in the Essex constituency of Clacton on 4 July 2024, as part of the 2024 United Kingdom general election. Nigel Farage, the newly re-appointed leader of Reform UK and the former leader of the UK Independence Party, won the election with 46.2% of the vote and successfully entered Parliament after 7 previous attempts. As "figurehead of the country's populist right", Farage brought Clacton to international attention.

References

  1. 1 2 Serhan, Yasmeen (20 May 2019). "Why Protesters Keep Hurling Milkshakes at British Politicians". The Atlantic . Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 Hassan, Jennifer (20 May 2019). "What is 'milkshaking?' Ask the Brits hurling drinks at right-wing candidates". The Washington Post . Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  3. ↑ "Police ask McDonald's to halt milkshake sales during Farage rally". The Guardian. 18 May 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  4. 1 2 Dadlton, Jane (19 May 2019). "Carl Benjamin: Milkshake thrown at Ukip candidate for fourth time this week" . The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  5. ↑ Far-right views:
  6. ↑ anti-immigration views:
  7. ↑ Parveen, Nazia (2 May 2019). "Tommy Robinson doused in milkshake for the second time in two days". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  8. ↑ Iqbal, Nosheen (5 May 2019). "'I'm getting death threats,' says man who threw milkshake on Tommy Robinson". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  9. ↑ Magra, Iliana (21 May 2019). "Why Are Milkshakes Being Thrown at Right-Wing Politicians Like Nigel Farage?". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  10. ↑ "Nigel Farage hit by milkshake during Newcastle walkabout". BBC News. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  11. ↑ Yorke, Harry; Maidment, Jack (20 May 2019). "Brexit latest news: Nigel Farage warns 'radicalised Remainers' are making campaigning 'impossible' after being hit by milkshake". The Telegraph . Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  12. ↑ Doughty, Sophie (20 May 2019). "Fundraising page to buy Nigel Farage a new suit after milkshake incident in Newcastle". Evening Chronicle . Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  13. ↑ Walker, Amy (22 May 2019). "Nigel Farage shelters on campaign bus to avoid milkshake attack". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
  14. 1 2 Halliday, Josh (18 June 2019). "Nigel Farage milkshake attacker ordered to pay Brexiter's suit-cleaning bill". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  15. ↑ Picheta, Rob (19 May 2019). "Police stop McDonald's from selling milkshakes near Nigel Farage rally". CNN . Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  16. ↑ Chakrabortty, Aditya (21 May 2019). "This Milkshake Spring isn't political violence – it's political theatre". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
  17. ↑ Magra, Iliana (21 May 2019). "Why Are Milkshakes Being Thrown at Right-Wing Politicians Like Nigel Farage?". The New York Times . Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  18. 1 2 Kaszeta, Dan (27 May 2019). "Sometimes a Milkshake Is Just a Milkshake". The Atlantic. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  19. ↑ Dalton, Jane (1 June 2019). "'Milkshakes against Trump' and giant cardboard wall to greet US president in one of UK's biggest-ever demonstrations" . The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
  20. ↑ "Trump fan hit with milkshake during protests". Sky News. 4 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
  21. ↑ O'Neil, Luke (3 June 2019). "Republican congressman hit by flying drink – but it wasn't quite a 'milkshaking'". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  22. ↑ Wilson, Jason (30 June 2019). "Portland police clash with protesters and make 'cement milkshake' claim". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  23. ↑ "Antifa attack blogger Andy Ngo amid violence at Portland Proud Boys protest" . The Independent. 30 June 2019. Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  24. ↑ Rambaran, Vandana (29 June 2019). "Antifa-Proud Boys confrontation in Portland turns violent; conservative writer injured". Fox News. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  25. ↑ Zielinski, Alex (1 July 2019). "Portland Police Offer No Proof That Protesters Had Milkshakes with "Quick-Dry Cement"". Portland Mercury. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  26. ↑ Goforth, Claire (1 July 2019). "Portland milkshake dealer denies adding concrete to drinks to harm Proud Boys". The Daily Dot. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  27. ↑ Did Milkshakes Thrown in Portland Protests Contain Cement?. Snopes, 3 July 2019
  28. ↑ Shepherd, Katie (2 July 2019). "Portland Police Made a Dubious Claim About Protesters' Milkshakes on Twitter. What's the Evidence?". Willamette Week. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
  29. ↑ "Andy Ngo wins $300K from defendants who ignored lawsuit over Portland protest beating". The Oregonian. 21 August 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  30. ↑ O'Connor, Rachael (30 September 2019). "Irish far-right National Party leader doused with milkshake during event in Galway". The Irish Post . Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  31. ↑ Haugh, Ben (1 October 2019). "Threats against student who threw milkshake at far-right leader". The Times . Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  32. ↑ Walawalkar, Aaron (19 September 2020). "Woman throws drink over Leo Varadkar as he gives Dublin interview". The Guardian . Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  33. ↑ "ICCL voices 'concern' at apparent garda profiling in 'Smoothie Girl' investigation". The Beacon. 17 November 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
    "ICCL letter on garda profiling of protesters". Irish Council for Civil Liberties. 16 November 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
    O’Rourke, Ryan (17 November 2020). "Rights group raises fears 'alternative lifestyle' women on garda watchlist". Irish Examiner. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
    Mooney, John (8 November 2020). "Leo Varadkar gives statement to gardai on smoothie criminal" . The Sunday Times. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  34. ↑ Ahmed, Jaded (4 June 2024). "Nigel Farage has milkshake thrown over him after launching general election campaign". independent.co.uk . Retrieved 4 June 2024.
  35. 1 2 Chakelian, Anoosh (16 May 2019). ""Lactose Against Intolerance!" How milkshake became a tool of protest". New Statesman . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  36. ↑ Sleman, Jazmine (21 May 2019). "Dry Cleaners Explain How to Make a Milkshake Literally Destroy Your Clothes". vice.com . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  37. 1 2 Ford, Matt (21 May 2019). "Why Milkshaking Works". The New Republic . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  38. ↑ Townshend, Kate (21 May 2019). "I can't stand Nigel Farage – but even I wouldn't throw a milkshake at him" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  39. ↑ Marshall, Josh (3 June 2019). "A Few Thoughts About Milkshaking". Talking Points Memo . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  40. ↑ Dugmore, Oli (23 May 2019). "Ricky Gervais says people milkshaking politicians 'deserve a smack in the mouth'". joe.co.uk . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  41. ↑ Hinsliff, Gaby (23 May 2019). "Gaby Hinsliff: Why 'milkshaking' might not be so funny after all". Grazia Daily . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  42. ↑ Elledge, Jonn (21 May 2019). "No, throwing milkshake at someone is not an act of political violence". New Statesman . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  43. ↑ Blanchard, Alexander (24 May 2019). "Is throwing a milkshake an act of political violence? What political theory tells us". The Conversation . Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  44. ↑ McGee, Luke (22 May 2019). "Right-wing British politicians are having milkshakes thrown over them. Here's why". CNN. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  45. ↑ Schatz, Bryan (21 June 2019). "The Iraqi journalist who threw his shoes at George W. Bush has thoughts about milkshaking". Mother Jones. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.