Miniaturization

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Battery chargers for successive generations of Apple's iPod Apple iPod Chargers.jpg
Battery chargers for successive generations of Apple's iPod

Miniaturization (Br.Eng.: miniaturisation) is the trend to manufacture ever-smaller mechanical, optical, and electronic products and devices. Examples include miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine downsizing. In electronics, the exponential scaling and miniaturization of silicon MOSFETs (MOS transistors) [1] [2] [3] leads to the number of transistors on an integrated circuit chip doubling every two years, [4] [5] an observation known as Moore's law. [6] [7] This leads to MOS integrated circuits such as microprocessors and memory chips being built with increasing transistor density, faster performance, and lower power consumption, enabling the miniaturization of electronic devices. [8] [3]

Contents

Electronic circuits

The history of miniaturization is associated with the history of information technology based on the succession of switching devices, each smaller, faster, and cheaper than its predecessor. [9] During the period referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870–1914), miniaturization was confined to two-dimensional electronic circuits used for the manipulation of information. [10] This orientation is demonstrated in the use of vacuum tubes in the first general-purpose computers. The technology gave way to the development of transistors in the 1950s and then the integrated circuit (IC) approach which followed. [9]

Demonstrating a miniature television device in 1963. Het kleinste TV-apparaat ter wereld, Bestanddeelnr 914-9265 (cropped).jpg
Demonstrating a miniature television device in 1963.

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. [11] It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturized and mass-produced for a wide range of uses, [12] due to its high scalability [1] and low power consumption, leading to increasing transistor density. [5] This made it possible to build high-density IC chips, [13] with reduced cost-per-transistor as transistor density increased. [14]

In the early 1960s, Gordon Moore, who later founded Intel, recognized that the ideal electrical and scaling characteristics of MOSFET devices would lead to rapidly increasing integration levels and unparalleled growth in electronic applications. [15] Moore's law, which he described in 1965, and which was later named after him, [16] predicted that the number of transistors on an IC for minimum component cost would double every 18 months.[ contradictory ] [6] [7] In 1974, Robert H. Dennard at IBM recognized the rapid MOSFET scaling technology and formulated the related Dennard scaling rule. [17] [18] Moore described the development of miniaturization during the 1975 International Electron Devices Meeting, confirming his earlier predictions. [14]

By 2004, electronics companies were producing silicon IC chips with switching MOSFETs that had feature size as small as 130 nanometers (nm) and development was also underway for chips a few nanometers in size through the nanotechnology initiative. [19] The focus is to make components smaller to increase the number that can be integrated into a single wafer and this required critical innovations, which include increasing wafer size, the development of sophisticated metal connections between the chip's circuits, and improvement in the polymers used for masks (photoresists) in the photolithography processes. [16] These last two are the areas where miniaturization has moved into the nanometer range. [16]

Other fields

Miniaturization became a trend in the last fifty years and came to cover not just electronic but also mechanical devices. [20] The process for miniaturizing mechanical devices is more complex due to the way the structural properties of mechanical parts change as they are reduced in scale. [20] It has been said that the so-called Third Industrial Revolution (1969 – c. 2015) is based on economically viable technologies that can shrink three-dimensional objects. [10]

In medical technology, engineers and designers have been exploring miniaturization to shrink components to the micro and nanometer range. Smaller devices can have lower cost, be made more portable (e.g.: for ambulances), and allow simpler and less invasive medical procedures. [21]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronics</span> Branch of physics and electrical engineering

Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles. Electronics is a subfield of electrical engineering, but it differs from it in that it focuses on using active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog to digital. Electronics also encompasses the fields of microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum electronics, which deal with the fabrication and application of electronic devices at microscopic, nanoscopic, optical, and quantum scales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Integrated circuit</span> Electronic circuit formed on a small, flat piece of semiconductor material

An integrated circuit, also known as a microchip or IC, is a small electronic device made up of multiple interconnected electronic components such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These components are etched onto a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Integrated circuits are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, and televisions, to perform various functions such as processing and storing information. They have greatly impacted the field of electronics by enabling device miniaturization and enhanced functionality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moore's law</span> Observation on the growth of integrated circuit capacity

Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an observation and projection of a historical trend. Rather than a law of physics, it is an empirical relationship linked to gains from experience in production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semiconductor device</span> Electronic component that exploits the electronic properties of semiconductor materials

A semiconductor device is an electronic component that relies on the electronic properties of a semiconductor material for its function. Its conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. Semiconductor devices have replaced vacuum tubes in most applications. They conduct electric current in the solid state, rather than as free electrons across a vacuum or as free electrons and ions through an ionized gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MOSFET</span> Type of field-effect transistor

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate, the voltage of which determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The term metal–insulator–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MISFET) is almost synonymous with MOSFET. Another near-synonym is insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CMOS</span> Technology for constructing integrated circuits

Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) fabrication process that uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSFETs for logic functions. CMOS technology is used for constructing integrated circuit (IC) chips, including microprocessors, microcontrollers, memory chips, and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for analog circuits such as image sensors, data converters, RF circuits, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</span> Integrated circuit

A mixed-signal integrated circuit is any integrated circuit that has both analog circuits and digital circuits on a single semiconductor die. Their usage has grown dramatically with the increased use of cell phones, telecommunications, portable electronics, and automobiles with electronics and digital sensors.

Semiconductor memory is a digital electronic semiconductor device used for digital data storage, such as computer memory. It typically refers to devices in which data is stored within metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) memory cells on a silicon integrated circuit memory chip. There are numerous different types using different semiconductor technologies. The two main types of random-access memory (RAM) are static RAM (SRAM), which uses several transistors per memory cell, and dynamic RAM (DRAM), which uses a transistor and a MOS capacitor per cell. Non-volatile memory uses floating-gate memory cells, which consist of a single floating-gate transistor per cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of electrical engineering</span>

This article details the history of electrical engineering. The first substantial practical use of electricity was electromagnetism.

The floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), also known as a floating-gate MOS transistor or floating-gate transistor, is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) where the gate is electrically isolated, creating a floating node in direct current, and a number of secondary gates or inputs are deposited above the floating gate (FG) and are electrically isolated from it. These inputs are only capacitively connected to the FG. Since the FG is surrounded by highly resistive material, the charge contained in it remains unchanged for long periods of time, nowadays typically longer than 10 years. Usually Fowler-Nordheim tunneling and hot-carrier injection mechanisms are used to modify the amount of charge stored in the FG.

Nanocircuits are electrical circuits operating on the nanometer scale. This is well into the quantum realm, where quantum mechanical effects become very important. One nanometer is equal to 10−9 meters or a row of 10 hydrogen atoms. With such progressively smaller circuits, more can be fitted on a computer chip. This allows faster and more complex functions using less power. Nanocircuits are composed of three different fundamental components. These are transistors, interconnections, and architecture, all fabricated on the nanometer scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PMOS logic</span> Family of digital circuits

PMOS or pMOS logic is a family of digital circuits based on p-channel, enhancement mode metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, PMOS logic was the dominant semiconductor technology for large-scale integrated circuits before being superseded by NMOS and CMOS devices.

A transistor is a semiconductor device with at least three terminals for connection to an electric circuit. In the common case, the third terminal controls the flow of current between the other two terminals. This can be used for amplification, as in the case of a radio receiver, or for rapid switching, as in the case of digital circuits. The transistor replaced the vacuum-tube triode, also called a (thermionic) valve, which was much larger in size and used significantly more power to operate. The first transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947, at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. Bell Labs was the research arm of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The three individuals credited with the invention of the transistor were William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The introduction of the transistor is often considered one of the most important inventions in history.

Edholm's law, proposed by and named after Phil Edholm, refers to the observation that the three categories of telecommunication, namely wireless (mobile), nomadic and wired networks (fixed), are in lockstep and gradually converging. Edholm's law also holds that data rates for these telecommunications categories increase on similar exponential curves, with the slower rates trailing the faster ones by a predictable time lag. Edholm's law predicts that the bandwidth and data rates double every 18 months, which has proven to be true since the 1970s. The trend is evident in the cases of Internet, cellular (mobile), wireless LAN and wireless personal area networks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electromechanics</span> Multidisciplinary field of engineering

In engineering, electromechanics combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems interact with each other. This process is especially prominent in systems such as those of DC or AC rotating electrical machines which can be designed and operated to generate power from a mechanical process (generator) or used to power a mechanical effect (motor). Electrical engineering in this context also encompasses electronics engineering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FET amplifier</span>

An FET amplifier is an amplifier that uses one or more field-effect transistors (FETs). The most common type of FET amplifier is the MOSFET amplifier, which uses metal–oxide–semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs). The main advantage of a FET used for amplification is that it has very high input impedance and low output impedance.

This article details the history of electronics engineering. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary (1972) defines electronics as "The science and technology of the conduction of electricity in a vacuum, a gas, or a semiconductor, and devices based thereon".

Dawon Kahng was a Korean-American electrical engineer and inventor, known for his work in solid-state electronics. He is best known for inventing the MOSFET, along with his colleague Mohamed Atalla, in 1959. Kahng and Atalla developed both the PMOS and NMOS processes for MOSFET semiconductor device fabrication. The MOSFET is the most widely used type of transistor, and the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.

Mohamed M. Atalla was an Egyptian-American engineer, physicist, cryptographer, inventor and entrepreneur. He was a semiconductor pioneer who made important contributions to modern electronics. He is best known for inventing the MOSFET in 1959, which along with Atalla's earlier surface passivation processes, had a significant impact on the development of the electronics industry. He is also known as the founder of the data security company Atalla Corporation, founded in 1972. He received the Stuart Ballantine Medal and was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for his important contributions to semiconductor technology as well as data security.

References

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  4. ↑ Siozios, Kostas; Anagnostos, Dimitrios; Soudris, Dimitrios; Kosmatopoulos, Elias (2018). IoT for Smart Grids: Design Challenges and Paradigms. Springer. p. 167. ISBN   9783030036409.
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  7. 1 2 "Excerpts from A Conversation with Gordon Moore: Moore's Law" (PDF). Intel Corporation. 2005. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 29, 2012. Retrieved May 2, 2006.
  8. ↑ Sridharan, K.; Pudi, Vikramkumar (2015). Design of Arithmetic Circuits in Quantum Dot Cellular Automata Nanotechnology. Springer. p. 1. ISBN   9783319166889.
  9. 1 2 Sharma, Karl (2010). Nanostructuring Operations in Nanoscale Science and Engineering . New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. pp.  16. ISBN   9780071626095.
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  12. ↑ Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 165–167. ISBN   9780470508923.
  13. ↑ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum . 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  14. 1 2 Brock, David; Moore, Gordon (2006). Understanding Moore's Law: Four Decades of Innovation. Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Press. p. 26. ISBN   0941901416.
  15. ↑ Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 18–5. ISBN   9781420006728.
  16. 1 2 3 Guston, David (2010). Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. p. 440. ISBN   9781412969871.
  17. ↑ McMenamin, Adrian (April 15, 2013). "The end of Dennard scaling" . Retrieved January 23, 2014.
  18. ↑ Streetman, Ben G.; Banerjee, Sanjay Kumar (2016). Solid state electronic devices. Boston: Pearson. p. 341. ISBN   978-1-292-06055-2. OCLC   908999844.
  19. ↑ Jha, B.B; Galgali, R.K.; Misra, Vibhuti (2004). Futuristic Materials. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. p. 55. ISBN   8177646168.
  20. 1 2 Van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2002). Science in Popular Culture: A Reference Guide . Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.  193. ISBN   0313318220.
  21. ↑ "Micro Moulding and Miniaturisation in MedTech". Micro Systems. 17 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
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