Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians (Ojibwe : Gichi-ziibiwininiwag) or simply the Mississippi Chippewa, are a historical Ojibwa Band inhabiting the headwaters of the Mississippi River and its tributaries in present-day Minnesota.
According to the oral history of the Mississippi Chippewa, they were primarily of the southern branch of Ojibwe who spread from the "Fifth Stopping Place" of Baawiting (Sault Ste. Marie region) along Lake Superior's southern shores until arriving at the "Sixth Stopping Place" of the Saint Louis River. They continued westward across the Savanna Portage, and spread both northward and southward along the Mississippi River and its major tributaries.
Before entering the treaty process with the United States, the Mississippi Chippewa consisted of the following sub-bands:
and many villages associated with these sub-bands. Together, they controlled the main north–south trade corridor of the Mississippi River headwaters. Their traditional use area included the stretch of the Mississippi River between its confluence with the Leech Lake River and its confluence with the Crow Wing River—known in the Ojibwe language as Gichi-ziibi (Big River)—and including the Brainerd Lakes Area.
In 1825, with the First Treaty of Prairie du Chien, the United States drew the Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin Line to separate the Ojibwe from the Dakota, believing the two were still at war with each other. The Ojibwe and the Dakota had ended their war for nearly a generation by that time and had only infrequent skirmishes. In 1830 the Indian Removal Act was signed by Andrew Jackson. This act of Congress gave the president power to force Indian tribes to move to land west of the Mississippi River.
The Mississippi Chippewa, along with the Red Lake, Pillager and the Lake Superior bands, entered into the Treaty of St. Peters in 1837 with the US. They ceded to the United States what is now part of northern Wisconsin and east-central Minnesota.
In 1850, the US government changed the annuity distribution point from La Pointe, Wisconsin to Sandy Lake, in an effort to move the tribes further west. Four thousand Ojibwe of various bands showed up in early October at the designated site, but no government agents or supplies were there. After waiting for two months in deteriorating weather, 170 Ojibwe died. The government finally brought the supplies and annuities but, because of harsh weather at that time of year, another 230 Ojibwe died on their returns to their lands. [1] This became known as the Sandy Lake tragedy.
In 1855, because of the tragedy at Sandy Lake, the Mississippi Chippewa, along with the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians, agreed upon the Treaty of Washington for the land cession of most of northern Minnesota. In exchange, the United States promised three reservations for the Pillagers and six reservations for the Mississippi Chippewa. In addition, as in other treaties, the tribes retained the right for traditional harvest of off-reservation resources, such as fish and game. (This right faded from general knowledge as living conditions changed, until it was revived in the late 20th century as tribes worked to exercise traditional practices and rights; one example was the Wisconsin Walleye War of the late 1980s.)
The six reservations were the following:
Due to confusing records kept by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the Rice Lake Indian Reservation was never established. Confusion arose because several different lakes around Sandy Lake had names which, translated into English, all seemed to mean "Rice Lake." This led to confusion related to which map was consulted, and the issue of where the reservation was to be located was never resolved. It appeared the Rice Lake Indian Reservation was located in the following areas:
The Rice Lake Band claimed these representations were all incorrect, and the proper location of the agreed Rice Lake Indian Reservation was much farther south.
On 18 August when the Mdewakanton attacked the Indian Agency on their reservation Chippewa-Sioux relations were already strained. In June 1862 Chief Bagone-giizhig (Hole-in-the-Day, Gull Lake Band) and Little Crow exchanged letters over a Chippewa having killed a Sioux. Little Crow told Hole-in-the-Day that the Sioux wanted their due. [5] Also in June, a Sioux-Chippewa skirmish took place near Pembina with losses on both sides. However, one of Chief Red Bear's sons was killed by the Sioux. [9]
The attack on the Lower Sioux Agency would bring war and mounted patrols to Minnesota and the Department of the Northwest until June 1866. In the north, several unfortified stagecoach stations along the Red River Trails were attacked despite being on Chippewa land. When Judge Cooper arrived at Hole-in-the-Day's village, during the first week of the war, he learned the Sioux had attacked the Chippewa at Otter tail lakes. [10] He also informed Governor Alexander Ramsey that the Gull Lake warriors were dancing around Sioux scalps when he arrived. [10] Hole-in-the-Day had his own major grievances with the Government, [5] but they were not enough for him to join the Santee Sioux. Like the other leaders of the Chippewa he offered to fight the Sioux. [11] [5] The Chippewa were experiencing that same fraud as the Sioux and the timing of their annuity payments were coincidently close so the media linked their dis-satisfactions in an anti-Native American narrative. At the same time the media published story after story of the Chippewa support of the Government vs. the Sioux.
Company D of the 5th Minnesota Infantry Regiment, was garrisoned at Fort Abercrombie, on the Red River of the North 150 miles due west of Gull Lake. They would be augmented by G Co. 9th Minnesota which had a large component of bi-racial White Earth Chippewa. [12] One of whom was killed and buried with military honors at St Cloud, Minnesota. [13] When G Company arrived at Fort Abercrombie the Fort was under attack. They went into action to break the siege. [14] : p.53–58 G Company joined the garrison and immediately endured the Sioux siege that followed.
On 2 September 1862 two Wisconsin Fond Du Lac Chiefs sent President Abraham Lincoln a letter offering to fight the Sioux so Minnesotans could go fight the south. The St Paul Pioneer and Democrat published that letter front page on 11 September 1862. Over the next week it was reprinted or referenced by multiple newspapers across the country: Chicago Tribune, [15] Chicago Times [16] New York Times, New York Herald [17] Washington D.C Evening Star, [18] The Portland Daily Press,Portland Maine [19] Wheeling Daily Intelligencer W. VA, [20] Cleveland Morning, [21] Vermont Chronicle, [22] The Weekly North Iowa Times, [23] Mankato Semi Weekly [24] and republished in St Paul on the 19th. [25]
On 3 September a Mille Lacs band Chief went to St Cloud with the same offer that also made the papers. [26] [27] The post Commander at Fort Ripley was informed and he extended State hospitality to the Chief until a response was received.
On 6 September the speculation [28] of Chief Hole in the Day joining Little Crow prompted Shaw-Bosh-Kung, head chief of the Mille Lacs band of Chippewa to send 700-750 warriors to Fort Ripley to volunteer to fight the Sioux and support the garrison along with the Sandy Lake band. [29] William P. Dole, the Indian agent was at Fort Ribley, asked that they return to their reservation. He told them they would be informed if they were needed. [29] However, war Chief Mou-Zoo-Mau-Nee (Iron-Walker) and 200 Mille Lacs warriors remained at the fort as did 100 from the Sandy Lake band. Both the Sandy Lake and Mille Lacs bands gained "non-removal" designations from the United States as a result. [29] Commissioner Dole gave the Mille Lacs band a document stating they could remain on their reservation for 1000 years for their actions. [29]
On 15 September a council was held at the Crow Wing agency where 22 Chiefs of the Mississippi and Pillager Bands "offered their services, and if necessary their life's to punish the enemies of the white people, the Sioux..." [11] Notable Chippewa there were Chiefs Hole-in-the-Day, Buffalo, and Flat-mouth.
On 22 September 40-50 Chippewa leaders arrived at the Minnesota State Capitol at the invitation of Gov. Ramsey thinking that their offer to fight the Sioux had been accepted. [30] [31] [32] General Pope would not accept their service as a matter of "public policy". Nearly all of Minnesota's Chippewa wanted to help. Gov. Ramsey told the Chiefs that Lincoln was busy with the civil war, but if they were needed they would be informed. This Chippewa effort made the news in many cities. [33] [34] The next day the Mdewakanton surrendered at Camp Release. St Paul's two photo studios made images of many of those Chippewa leaders in 1862 that are in the Minnesota Historical Society archives.
Hanging Cloud, the Chippewa Bear Clan "princess" was part of a war party from Wisconsin that came to Minnesota during the war. [8] The war party was involved in a two-day engagement. The press had labeled her a "princess" when she first made the news for being the daughter of a Rice Lake, Wisconsin Chief affiliated to the Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians.
1863 Late February 22 Chiefs waited in Chicago for Hole-in-the-Day and the Indian Commissioner to go with them to see Lincoln. [35] In April 1863 President Lincoln summoned the Mille Lacs and other Mississippi bands to Washington. He repeated what the Indian agent had told them at Fort Ripley, that the Mille Lacs Band could stay on their reservation for 1,000 years for their actions in support of the Government. [29] From that the Mille Lacs band created the "non-removable" label for those that participated at Fort Ripley. Both Chippewa treaties of 1863 and 1864 identify the Mille Lacs band as being "non-removable" in Article 12. "owing to the heretofore good conduct of the Mille Lac Indians, they shall not be compelled to remove ...."12 Stat. 1249 [36] [37] Article 12 makes the Milles Band unique. [38]
In June, Hole-in-the-Day offered Gen. Sibley 600 warriors for his expedition into Dakota Territory that Sibley turned down. [39] Not dissuaded, in July he offered his warriors to Major Hatch. [40]
Hatch's Battalion or the Indian Battalion of Minnesota Volunteers was initially proposed to consist of 1000 Chippewa. [41]
The Chippewa offers to fight the Sioux had the interest and support of Gov. Ramsey as well as both US Senators Rice and Wilkinson. [42] With Generals Pope and Sibley opposed, the Senators went higher to Secretary of War Stanton of the Department of War. [42] In July, 1863 the Senators, united in their dislike for Pope, requested that Secretary of War Stanton authorize an independent mounted Indian Battalion of Minnesota Volunteers consisting of the 1000 Chippewa "auxiliaries". [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] Gen. Pope in particular objected to the Chippewa Auxiliaries. [47] Major Hatch meet with Chief Hole-in-the-Day in July when the Chief offered warriors to join Hatch. [48] [49] The battalion was to report directly to the War Department and had a "roving commission" to act on its own discretion. [50] This freedom of tactical operation was a first. [51] Both Gen. Pope and Gen. Sibley had objected to a Minnesota unit not reporting to them. [47] [52] Pope complained about the politics and the Senators. At the same time Ohio senator Benjamin Wade sent a letter to Secretary Stanton suggesting that he make Senator Rice a Major General and use him to replace Gen. Pope "as the Chippewa had complete confidence in Senator Rice". President Lincoln endorsed the letter and made E.A.C Hatch a Major in the USV. [53] Pope was able to get the entire plan changed. At Pembina 37 Metis, of Chippewa heritage, joined Hatch. [54] When Little Crow talked to the Governor at Fort Garry he inquired if the rumors were true about the formation of a Battalion to hunt him. [55] The Battalion was mustered-in during August–September 1863, for a period of three years or the end of the Indian War. [56] It was mustered out in June 1866 just months short of the three years. It was created solely for the execution of the Indian War and promoted as sweeping the Sioux from the north.
1864 saw the White-earth men of G Company 9th Minn gain recognition as the State's best skirmishers. [12] They along with the 59th Colored Troops fought the rear guard action for the North at the Battle of Brices Crossroads. [12] Their sharpshooting enabled some of the 59th to escape entrapment at one bridge crossing. Capture for those troops would have meant summary executions for being "black".
All Minnesota bands of Mississippi Chippewa were ordered to move from their existing reservations to the area surrounding the Leech Lake and Lake Winnibigoshish reservations. Due to strife between the removed Mississippi, Leech Lake Pillager and Lake Winnibigoshish bands, the Mississippi Chippewa negotiated with the United States for resettlement. The Pokegama Lake Band, together with the Removable Sandy Lake Band, negotiated to remain eventually forming the White Oak Point Band on the White Oak Point Reservation. In 1934 they merged with Cass Lake, Lake Winnibigoshish and Leech Lake Indian reservations to form the existing Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe and its reservation.
1865The media reported that Hole-in-the-Day still was regretting that the Chippewa battalion had not been organized as intended.
With the signing of the 1867 Treaty of Washington, the remaining Mississippi Chippewa about Leech Lake agreed to resettlement to the west, creating the White Earth Reservation. In the 20th century, the bands combined to form the contemporary White Earth Band of Chippewa. Under pressure from the lumbermen and farm settlers who wanted native lands, the US government believed the White Earth Reservation was the answer to the "Chippewa Problem" and strongly pressured the Mille Lacs and the remaining Sandy Lake bands to relocate there. Many did, becoming the "Removable" peoples, while those who remained in their traditional territories in the central part of the state became the "Non-removable".In 1867 a treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi tribe and the United States government was signed. This treaty regulates the farming and logging land that the Indians received. The author of this article Charles J. Kappler played a prominent role in the passing of this treaty along with bringing Indian law cases before the United States supreme court.
Late in the fall of 1885 ex-Secretary of War and ex-Minnesota governor Ramsey escorted the son of Chippewa Chief Hole in the Day to Washington D.C. as Minnesota's candidate to West Point. [57]
Because of the “Treaty with the Chippewa, 1855” Indians from the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe and White Earth Band of Chippewa still receive proportions today. Article 3 of the treaty states; “In consideration of, and in full compensation for, the cessions made by the said Mississippi, Pillager, and Lake Winnibigoshish bands of Chippewa Indians, in the first article of this agreement, the United States hereby agree and stipulate to pay, expend, and make provision for, the said bands of Indians, as follows, viz: For the Mississippi bands". Though the Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians no longer exists legally, the majority of the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe and White Earth Band of Chippewa still identify as Mississippi Chippewa. Successors apparent of the Mississippi Chippewa are:
Burial mounds of Indigenous people, including the Mississippi Band of Chippewa Indians have been a long tradition in their culture. Burial mounds are a sacred cemetery where their ancestors are buried. It is a place of respect, remembrance, and prayer. The article by Timothy Pauketat, “Dictionary of American History. . Encyclopedia.com. 28 Mar. 2022.” Encyclopedia.com explains how some Indian burial mounds have been discovered and accredited to being a burial mound . One example of preserving a sacred mound is Grand Mound Historic Site located near International Falls, MN. This site is one of 25 national Historic Landmarks in Minnesota. Kent Whitworth, MNHS director and CEO states, “The historical importance of this site cannot be understated, but we must protect it and provide education while also ensuring that Native people can care for the place where their ancestors lie.” Because of the significance of their importance to Native American people states have found it necessary to preserve them. The Effigy Mounds National Monument located in Iowa is an example of that .
The Ojibwe are an Anishinaabe people whose homeland covers much of the Great Lakes region and the northern plains, extending into the subarctic and throughout the northeastern woodlands. The Ojibwe, being Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands and of the subarctic, are known by several names, including Ojibway or Chippewa. As a large ethnic group, several distinct nations also consider themselves Ojibwe, including the Saulteaux, Nipissings, and Oji-Cree.
The Red Lake Indian Reservation covers 1,260.3 sq mi in parts of nine counties in Minnesota, United States. It is made up of numerous holdings but the largest section is an area around Red Lake, in north-central Minnesota, the largest lake in the state. This section lies primarily in the counties of Beltrami and Clearwater. Land in seven other counties is also part of the reservation. The reservation population was 5,506 in the 2020 census.
Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa are a historical Ojibwa tribe located in the upper Mississippi River basin, on and around Big Sandy Lake in what today is in Aitkin County, Minnesota. Though politically folded into the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe, thus no longer independently federally recognized, for decades, Sandy Lake Band members have been leading efforts to restore their independent Federal recognition.
The White Earth Indian Reservation is home to the White Earth Band, in northwestern Minnesota. It is the largest Indian reservation in the state by land area. The reservation includes all of Mahnomen County, plus parts of Becker and Clearwater counties in the northwest part of the state along the Wild Rice and White Earth rivers. The reservation's land area is 1,093 square miles (2,830 km2). The population was 9,726 as of the 2020 census, including off-reservation trust land. The White Earth Indian Reservation is one of six bands that make up the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, their governing body for major administrative needs. It is about 225 miles (362 km) from Minneapolis–Saint Paul and roughly 65 miles (105 km) from Fargo–Moorhead.
The White Earth Band of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, also called the White Earth Nation, is a federally recognized Native American band in northwestern Minnesota. The band's land base is the White Earth Indian Reservation.
Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa is an Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) band located near Cloquet, Minnesota. Their land base is the Fond du Lac Indian Reservation, located mainly in Carlton and Saint Louis Counties, Minnesota, 20 miles west of Duluth.
Mille Lacs Indian Reservation is the popular name for the land-base for the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe in Central Minnesota, about 100 miles (160 km) north of Minneapolis-St. Paul. The contemporary Mille Lacs Band reservation has significant land holdings in Mille Lacs, Pine, Aitkin and Crow Wing counties, as well as other land holdings in Kanabec, Morrison, and Otter Tail Counties. Mille Lacs Indian Reservation is also the name of a formal Indian reservation established in 1855. It is one of the two formal reservations on which the contemporary Mille Lacs Band retains land holdings. The contemporary Mille Lacs band includes several aboriginal Ojibwe bands and villages, whose members reside in communities throughout central Minnesota.
The Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe, also known as the Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians, is a federally recognized American Indian tribe in east-central Minnesota. The Band has 4,302 members as of 2012. Its homeland is the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation, consisting of District I, District II, District IIa, and District III.
The St. Croix Chippewa Indians are a historical Band of Ojibwe located along the St. Croix River, which forms the boundary between the U.S. states of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The majority of the St. Croix Band are divided into two groups: the federally recognized St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin, and the St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Minnesota, who are one of four constituent members forming the federally recognized Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe. The latter is one of six bands in the federally recognized Minnesota Chippewa Tribe.
The Mille Lacs Indians, also known as the Mille Lacs and Snake River Band of Chippewa, are a Band of Indians formed from the unification of the Mille Lacs Band of Mississippi Chippewa (Ojibwe) with the Mille Lacs Band of Mdewakanton Sioux (Dakota). Today, their successor apparent Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe consider themselves as being Ojibwe, but many on their main reservation have the ma'iingan (wolf) as their chief doodem (clan), which is an indicator of Dakota origins.
The Sandy Lake Tragedy was the culmination in 1850 of a series of events centered in Big Sandy Lake, Minnesota that resulted in the deaths of several hundred Lake Superior Chippewa. Officials of the Zachary Taylor Administration and Minnesota Territory sought to relocate several bands of the tribe to areas west of the Mississippi River. By changing the location for fall annuity payments, the officials intended the Chippewa to stay at the new site for the winter, hoping to lower their resistance to relocation. Due to delayed and inadequate payments of annuities and lack of promised supplies, about 400 Ojibwe, mostly men and 12% of the tribe, died of disease, starvation and cold. The outrage increased Ojibwe resistance to removal. The bands effectively gained widespread public support to achieve permanent reservations in their traditional territories.
The Lake Superior Chippewa are a large number of Ojibwe (Anishinaabe) bands living around Lake Superior; this territory is considered part of northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota in the United States. They migrated into the area by the seventeenth century, encroaching on the Eastern Dakota people who had historically occupied the area. The Ojibwe defeated the Eastern Dakota, who migrated west into the Great Plains after the final battle in 1745. While they share a common culture including the Anishinaabe language, this highly decentralized group of Ojibwe includes at least twelve independent bands in the region.
Hatch's Minnesota Cavalry Battalion was a Minnesota USV cavalry battalion that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War and American Indian Wars.
Lake Lena is an unincorporated community and Native American village in Ogema Township, Pine County, Minnesota, United States, located along the Lower Tamarack River. It currently is the administrative center for the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation, District III.
Beshekee, also Pezeke and other variant spellings of Ojibwe Bizhiki, was a noted war chief from the Bear doodem of the Pillager Chippewa Band during the 19th century in North America.
Treaty of St. Peters may be one of two treaties conducted between the United States and Native American peoples, conducted at the confluence of the Minnesota River with the Mississippi River, in what today is Mendota, Minnesota.
Sandy Lake is an unincorporated community Native American village located in Turner Township, Aitkin County, Minnesota, United States. Its name in the Ojibwe language is Gaa-mitaawangaagamaag, meaning "Place of the Sandy-shored Lake". The village is administrative center for the Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa, though the administration of the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation, District II, is located in the nearby East Lake.
An act for the relief and civilization of the Chippewa Indians in the State of Minnesota, commonly known as the Nelson Act of 1889, was a United States federal law intended to relocate all the Anishinaabe people in Minnesota to the White Earth Indian Reservation in the western part of the state, and expropriate the vacated reservations for sale to European settlers.
Hole-in-the-Day was a prominent chief of the Mississippi band of Ojibwe/Chippewa in Minnesota. The native pronunciation has been written with different spellings due different speakers variance in their enunciation, such as Bagone-giizhig, Bagwunagijik, Bug-o-nay-ki-shig, Pugonakeshig or Puk-O-Nay-Keshig. Hole-in-the-Day has also been called Hole-in-the-Sky. The name refers to a dream in which the guardian spirit was seen through an opening in the clouds. It also refers to the Anishinaabek name for the constellation of the same name, also known as the Pleiades.
Fort Ripley was a United States Army outpost on the upper Mississippi River, in mid-central Minnesota from 1848 to 1877. It was situated a few miles from the Indian agencies for the Ho-Chunk and Ojibwe in Iowa Territory and then the Minnesota Territory. Its presence spurred immigration into the area and the pioneer settlement of Crow Wing developed approximately 6.75 miles (10.86 km) north of the fort. The post was initially named Fort Marcy. It then was renamed Fort Gaines and in 1850 was renamed again for distinguished Brigadier General Eleazer Wheelock Ripley of the War of 1812. It was the second major military reservation established in what would become Minnesota.