Mixed-race Dominicans

Last updated
Mixed Dominicans
Dominicanos Mixtos (Spanish)
Dominican Republic students.jpg
Mixed-race Dominicans, students with historic 1844 flag.
Total population
Mixed ancestry predominates
Increase2.svg6,179,341 (2022 census) [1]
Decrease2.svg 71.72% of the Dominican population
(Only 12 years and older)

Mixed Dominican groups:
 •Indio: 2,946,377 (34.20%)
 •Moreno: 2,237,370 (25.97%)
 • Mestizo: 665,387 (7.72%)
 • Mulatto: 330,207 (3.83%)
Languages
Dominican Spanish
Religion
Majority: Roman Catholicism
Minority: Protestantism
Related ethnic groups
Dominicans
White Dominicans  · Black Dominicans

Mixed Dominicans (Spanish : Dominicanos Mixtos), also referred to as mulatto, mestizo or historically quadroon or castizo, are Dominicans who are of mixed ancestry (mainly white and black, to a lesser extent native), these stand out for having brown skin. Representing 71.72% of the Dominican Republic's population, they are by far the single largest racial grouping of the country. [2]

Contents

Mixed Dominicans are the descendants from the racial integration between the Europeans, Native Americans, and later the Africans. They have a total population of approximately 8 million. [3] [4]

The Dominican Republic was the site of the first European settlement in the Americas, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo founded in 1493. After the arrival of Europeans and the founding of the colony, Black African people were imported to the island. The fusion of European, native Taino, and African influences contributed to the development of present-day Dominican culture.

History

Native peoples

Prior to European colonization the inhabitants of the island were the Arawakan-speaking Taíno, a seafaring people who moved into Hispaniola from the north-east region of South America, displacing earlier inhabitants, [5] c. AD 650. The native Tainos divided the island into several chiefdoms and engaged in farming, fishing, [6] as well as hunting, and gathering. [5]

The Spaniards arrived in 1492. Columbus and his crew were the first Europeans to encounter the Taíno people. Columbus described the native Taínos as a physically tall, and well-proportioned people, with a noble character. After initially amicable relationships, the Taínos fought against the conquest, led by the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagaríx, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave for a time on the island. Within a few years after 1492 the population of Taínos had declined drastically, due to warfare and intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that at least 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taíno women, [7] and many present-day Dominicans have significant Taíno ancestry. [8] [9]

European colonization

Christopher Columbus arrived on the island in December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to the Americas. He claimed the land for Spain and named it La Española due to its diverse climate and terrain which reminded him of the Spanish landscape. In 1496, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo in the southern coast of the island. The colony became a military base of Spanish conquistadors for the further Spanish conquest of the Americas and the first seat of Spanish colonial rule in the New World. For centuries the colony fought against British, Dutch, and French expeditions into the region until the 17th century when pirates working for the French Empire took over part of the west coast. After decades of armed conflicts, Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France in the Treaty of Ryswick.

Dominican Republic national pantheon in Santo Domingo. DOMREP-s-dom-panteon-innen.jpg
Dominican Republic national pantheon in Santo Domingo.

In the 1700s Santo Domingo's exports soared and the island's agricultural productivity rose. [10] The population was bolstered by European emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony in the Cibao Valley. [11] [12] During this period, the privateers of Santo Domingo sailed into enemy ports looking for ships to attack, thus disrupting commerce between Spain's enemies in the Atlantic. Dominicans in the service of the Spanish Crown captured British, Dutch, French and Danish ships in the Caribbean Sea throughout the 18th century. [11] The revenue acquired in these acts of piracy was invested in the economic expansion of the colony. Numerous captive Africans were also taken from enemy slave ships in West Indian waters. The population of Santo Domingo grew to approximately 125,000 in the year 1791. Of this number, 40,000 were white landowners, about 70,000 were of multiracial origin, and some 15,000 were black slaves. [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

From the start of the colonial period in the 1500s, Miscegenation (Mestizaje), intermixing of races particularly Spanish settlers, native Tainos, and imported Africans (free or enslaved), was very strong. [18] In fact, colonial Santo Domingo had higher amount of mixing and lesser racial tensions in comparison to other colonies, even other Spanish colonies, this was due to the fact that for most of its colonial period, Santo Domingo was used as a military base where the majority of the Spanish settlers had an economy based on Cattle ranching, which was a far less labor-intensive than the more common plantation slavery at the time. [19] [20] By the 1700s, the majority of the population was mixed race, forming the basis of the Dominican ethnicity as a distinct people well before independence was achieved. [21]

Independence

Map of the Dominican Republic and Haiti in 1859. 1859 Dufour Map of Hispaniola or Santo Domingo, West Indies (Haiti, Dominican Republic) - Geographicus - StDomingue-dufour-1859.jpg
Map of the Dominican Republic and Haiti in 1859.

During the 1800s Dominicans were often at war, fighting the French, Haitians, Spanish, or amongst themselves, resulting in a society heavily influenced by military strongmen. Santo Domingo attained independence as the Dominican Republic in 1844. Dominican nationalists led an insurrection against the Haitians. On the morning of 27 February 1844, the gates of Santo Domingo rang with the shots of the plotters, who had emerged from their meetings to openly challenge the Haitians. Their efforts were successful, and for the next ten years, Dominican military strongmen fought to preserve their country's independence from the Haitian government. After ousting the Haitian occupying force from the country, Dominican nationalists fought against a series of attempted Haitian invasions that served to consolidate their independence from 1844 to 1856. [22] Under the command of Faustin Soulouque Haitian soldiers tried to gain back control of lost territory, but this effort was to no avail as the Dominicans would go on to decisively win every battle henceforth. In March 1844, a 30,000-strong two-pronged attack by Haitians was successfully repelled by an under-equipped Dominican army under the command of the wealthy rancher Gen. Pedro Santana. [23] Four years later, Dominican fleets attacked Haitian towns, and land reinforcements in the south to force the determined Haitian leader to concede. [23] In the most thorough and intense encounter of all, Dominicans armed with swords sent Haitian troops into flight on all three fronts in 1855. [23]

Post-colonial migrations

Mixed Dominicans 1920-2022
YearPopulation% of
Dominican Rep.
1920 444,587Steady2.svg 49.69%
1950 1,289,285Increase2.svg 60.36%
1960 2,222,380Increase2.svg 72.93%
2022 6,179,341Decrease2.svg 71.72%
Source: Dominican census [24]

In the late 19th century and early 20th century there was an increase in country's population as many immigrants came from other Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, Turks, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Antigua, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the coastal areas of the country. The immigration of Cocolos began in the late 1800s with the rise and development of the sugar industry in the Dominican Republic. The first Turks and Caicos Islander immigrants began arriving in Puerto Plata after the Dominican War of Restoration, long before the modern sugar industry was established. When the railroad of Puerto Plata-Santiago was built in the late 19th century, many came from these islands to work on the railroad as well as others from Saint Thomas, which was then a Danish colony, they also settled in large numbers in Puerto Plata. [25]

The majority of the immigrants that settled in the Dominican Republic in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century established their residence in Santo Domingo, Santiago, Moca and Puerto Plata. Arabs (primarily from Lebanon and Syria) also settled in the country, working as agricultural laborers and merchants. Most immigrants intermixed with the local Dominican population, especially immigrants that came before 1980.

During the 19th century Puerto Plata was the most important port in the country (and even became provisional capital) and hosted the European and North American migration to the Dominican Republic. The majority were Germans traders and tobacco producers, most of them being from Hamburg and Bremen. There were also Englishmen, Dutch, Spaniards (mainly from Catalonia), Puerto Ricans (at least 30,000 between 1880 and 1940), Cubans (at least 5,000 immigrated during the Ten Years' War) and Italians. After the Restoration War there was an inflow of Americans and French. Most immigrants during this period completely assimilated into the local Dominican population. [26] [27]

More recently, there has been an increase of immigrants from Haiti, and to a lesser degree Venezuela, Cuba, Puerto Rico, among others due to the economic growth in Dominican Republic.

Genetic ancestry and DNA testing

Timeline of the Dominican Republic's genetic make-up since 500 years ago showing the impact of migrations. The founder Dominican population was mostly European in origin with some Native Taino element, but was modified by subsequent African inflows. .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} European DNA Native American DNA Sub-Saharan African DNA Evolution of the Dominican Republic's genetic make-up.jpg
Timeline of the Dominican Republic's genetic make-up since 500 years ago showing the impact of migrations. The founder Dominican population was mostly European in origin with some Native Taíno element, but was modified by subsequent African inflows.
  European DNA
  Native American DNA
  Sub-Saharan African DNA

According to recent genealogical DNA studies of the Dominican population, the genetic makeup is predominantly European and Sub-Saharan African, with a lesser degree of Indigenous ancestry. The average DNA admixture of the founder Dominican population is 73% European, 10% Native, and 17% African, but due to migration from Haitians, Afro-Caribbeans, and Afro-Americans the current overall admixture is 50%-60% European, 5%-10% Native and 30%-40% African. [28] [29] [30] [31]

The majority of Dominicans are a mix of Europeans and Africans, with lesser amounts of Indigenous blood, and they can accurately be described as "Mulatto" or "Tri-racial". [32] [33] Dominican Republic have several informal terms to loosely describe a person's degree of racial admixture, Mestizo means any type of mixed ancestry unlike in other Latin American countries it describes specifically a European/native mix, [34] Indio describes mixed race people whose skin color is between white and black. [35]

The majority of the Dominican population is tri-racial, with nearly all mixed race individuals having Taíno Native American ancestry along with European and African ancestry. European ancestry in the mixed population typically ranges between 50% and 60% on average, while African ancestry ranges between 30% and 40%, and the Native ancestry usually ranges between 5% and 10%. European and Native ancestry tends to be strongest in cities and towns of the north-central Cibao region, and generally in the mountainous interior of the country. African ancestry is strongest in coastal areas, the southeast plain, and the border regions. [28]

In Dominican Republic and some other Latin American countries, it can sometimes be difficult to determine the exact number of racial groups, because the lines between whites and lighter multiracials are very blurry, which is also true between blacks and darker multiracials. As race in Dominican Republic acts as a continuum of white—mulatto—black and not as clear cut as in places like the United States. [36] And many times in the same family, there can be people of different colors and racial phenotypes who are blood related, this is due to the large amounts of interracial mixing for hundreds of years in Dominican Republic and the Spanish Caribbean in general, allowing for high amounts of genetic diversity. [37]

Dominican Republic people in the town of Moca. Dominican-people-cibao-1.jpg
Dominican Republic people in the town of Moca.
Genetic ancestry of Dominican population
StudyYearCaucasoidSSAAmerindian
Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture among Hispanic/Latino populations [38] 201051%42%7%
Reconstructing the Population Genetic History of the Caribbean [29] 201357%35%8%
Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations [28] 201552%40%8%
A continuum of admixture in the Western Hemisphere revealed by the African Diaspora genome [39] 201652%38%9%
Admixture in the Americas: Regional and National Differences [31] 201647%42%12%
Admixture mapping of peripheral artery disease in a Dominican population reveals a putative risk locus on 2q35 [40] 202356%37%6%

Culture

Dominicans protest in Santo Domingo city. Protestas Plaza de la Bandera dia uno 3.jpg
Dominicans protest in Santo Domingo city.

Carnival celebrations are held in the Dominican Republic each February with parades, street dancing, food festivals, and music. Festivities also take place in the week leading up to Easter Sunday. Parades, beauty pageants, and different festivals in each town throughout the country fill the week. In June the country celebrates Espíritu Santo to honor the island's multi-ethnic heritage with nationwide festivals featuring traditional music. Concerts, dance troupes, arts and crafts booths, and chefs also celebrate Dominican heritage with an annual cultural festival in Puerto Plata each June. Fiesta Patria de la Restauración, or Restoration Day, celebrates the Dominican Republic's day of independence from Spain, which occurred in 1863. Nationwide events include parades, music festivals, street festivals, and food festivals.

Sports

Dominican Major League Baseball player Albert Pujols. Pujols2019 (cropped).jpg
Dominican Major League Baseball player Albert Pujols.

Baseball is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic. After the United States, the Dominican Republic has the second-highest number of Major League Baseball (MLB) players. Ozzie Virgil, Sr. became the first Dominican-born player in the MLB on September 23, 1956. Juan Marichal is the first Dominican-born player in the Baseball Hall of Fame. [41]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominican Republic</span> Country in the Caribbean

The Dominican Republic is a North American country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean. It shares a maritime border with Puerto Rico to the east and a land border with Haiti to the west, occupying the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola which, along with Saint Martin, is one of only two islands in the Caribbean shared by two sovereign states. In the Antilles, the country is the second-largest nation by area after Cuba at 48,671 square kilometers (18,792 sq mi) and second-largest by population after Haiti with approximately 11.4 million people in 2024, of whom 3.6 million reside in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Dominican Republic</span>

The recorded history of the Dominican Republic began in 1492 when Christopher Columbus, working for the Crown of Castile, arrived at a large island in the western Atlantic Ocean, later known as the Caribbean. The native Taíno people, an Arawakan people, had inhabited the island during the pre-Columbian era, dividing it into five chiefdoms. They referred to the eastern part of the island as Quisqueya, meaning 'mother of all lands.' Columbus claimed the island for Castile, naming it La Isla Española, which was later Latinized to Hispaniola.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hispaniola</span> Caribbean island shared by the Dominican Republic and Haiti

Hispaniola is an island between Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and the second-largest by land area, after Cuba. The 76,192-square-kilometre (29,418 sq mi) island is divided into two separate sovereign countries: the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic (48,445 km2 to the east and the French and Haitian Creole–speaking Haiti (27,750 km2 to the west. The only other divided island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, which is shared between France and the Netherlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puerto Ricans</span> People from Puerto Rico or who identify culturally as Puerto Rican

Puerto Ricans, most commonly known as Boricuas, but also occasionally referred to as Borinqueños, Borincanos, or Puertorros, are an ethnic group native to the Caribbean archipelago and island of Puerto Rico, and a nation identified with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico through ancestry, culture, or history. Puerto Ricans are predominately a tri-racial, Spanish-speaking, Christian society, descending in varying degrees from Indigenous Taíno natives, Southwestern European colonists, and West and Central African slaves, freedmen, and free Blacks. As citizens of a U.S. territory, Puerto Ricans have automatic birthright American citizenship, and are considerably influenced by American culture. The population of Puerto Ricans is between 9 and 10 million worldwide, with the overwhelming majority residing in Puerto Rico and mainland United States.

Mulatto is a racial classification that refers to people of mixed African and European ancestry only. When speaking or writing about a singular woman in English, the word is mulatta. The use of this term began in the United States of America shortly after the Atlantic Slave Trade began and its use was widespread, derogatory and disrespectful. After the post Civil Rights Era, the term is now considered to be both outdated and offensive in America. In other Anglophone countries such as the British Isles, the Caribbean, and English and Dutch-speaking West Indian countries, the word mulatto is still used. The use of this word does not have the same negative associations found among English speakers. Among Latinos in both the US and Latin America, the word is used in every day speech and its meaning is a source of racial and ethnic pride. In four of the Latin-based languages, the default, masculine word ends with the letter "o" and is written as follows: Spanish and Portuguese – mulato; Italian – mulatto. The French equivalent is mulâtre. In English, the masculine plural is written as mulattoes while in Spanish and Portuguese it is mulatos. The masculine plural in Italian is mulatti and in French it is mulâtres. The feminine plurals are: English – mulattas; Spanish and Portuguese – mulatas; Italian – mulatte; French – mulâtresses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominicans</span> People who are associated with the Dominican Republic

Dominicans are an ethno-national people, a people of shared ancestry and culture, who have ancestral roots in the Dominican Republic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture of the Dominican Republic</span>

The culture of the Dominican Republic is a diverse mixture of different influences from around the world. The Dominican people and their customs have origins consisting predominantly in a European cultural basis, with native Taíno and African influences.

Afro–Latin Americans or Black Latin Americans are Latin Americans of sub-Saharan African heritage. African heritage is common throughout Latin America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Provinces of the Dominican Republic</span> First-level administrative divisions of the Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic is divided into thirty-one provincias, while the national capital, Santo Domingo, is contained within its own Distrito Nacional.

The Cibao, usually referred as El Cibao, is a region of the Dominican Republic located in the northern part of the country. As of 2009, the Cibao region has a population of 5,622,378, making it the most populous region in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Republic of Spanish Haiti</span> Period of Dominican statehood following the 1st independence from Spain (1821–1822)

The Republic of Spanish Haiti, also called the Independent State of Spanish Haiti was the independent state that succeeded the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo after independence was declared on 30 November 1821 by José Núñez de Cáceres. The republic lasted only from 1 December 1821 to 9 February 1822 when it was invaded by the Republic of Haiti.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afro-Dominicans</span> Dominicans of African descent

Afro-Dominicans are Dominicans of predominant or total Sub-Saharan African ancestry. They are a minority in the country representing 7.5% or 642,018 of the population, according to the 2022 census.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominican Spanish</span> Variety (or varieties) of Spanish spoken in the Dominican Republic

Dominican Spanish is Spanish as spoken in the Dominican Republic; and also among the Dominican diaspora, most of whom live in the United States, chiefly in New York City, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish West Indies</span> Spanish colony from 1492 to 1898

The Spanish West Indies, Spanish Caribbean or the Spanish Antilles were Spanish territories in the Caribbean. In terms of governance of the Spanish Empire, The Indies was the designation for all its overseas territories and was overseen by the Council of the Indies, founded in 1524 and based in Spain. When the Crown established the Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1535, the islands of the Caribbean came under its jurisdiction.

Anti-Haitian sentiment is prejudice or social discrimination against Haitians in the Dominican Republic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo</span> Haitian rule in the Dominican Republic (1822 to 1844)

The Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo was the annexation and merger of then-independent Republic of Spanish Haiti into the Republic of Haiti, that lasted twenty-two years, from February 9, 1822, to February 27, 1844. The part of Hispaniola under Spanish administration was first ceded to France and merged with the French colony of Saint Domingue as a result of the Peace of Basel in 1795. However, with the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution the French lost the western part of the island, while remaining in control of the eastern part of the island until the Spanish recaptured Santo Domingo in 1809.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White Dominicans</span> Dominicans of European descent

White Dominicans, also known as Caucasian Dominicans, are Dominican people of predominant or total European ancestry. The 2022 Dominican Republic census reported that 1,611,752 people or 18.7% of those 12 years old and above identify as white, 731,855 males and 879,897 females.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tourism in the Dominican Republic</span>

Tourism in the Dominican Republic is an important sector of the country's economy. More than 10 million tourists visited the Dominican Republic in 2023, making it the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean and putting it in the top 5 overall in the Americas. The industry accounts for 11.6% of the nation's GDP and is a particularly important source of revenue in coastal areas of the country. The nation's tropical climate, white sand beaches, diverse mountainous landscape and colonial history attracts visitors from around the world. In 2022, the nation's tourism was named the best-performing nation since the height of the pandemic with over 5% visitors more in comparison to pre-pandemic levels in 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominican Republic–Spain relations</span> Bilateral relations

Dominican Republic–Spain relations are the bilateral relations between the Dominican Republic and Spain. Both nations are members of the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language and the Organization of Ibero-American States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominican art</span> Cultural output of the Dominican Republic

Dominican art comprises all the visual arts and plastic arts made in Dominican Republic. Since ancient times, various groups have inhabited the island of Ayíti/Quisqueya, or Hispaniola ; the history of its art is generally compartmentalized in the same three periods throughout Dominican history: pre-Hispanic or aboriginal Amerindian, Hispanic or colonial, and the national or Dominican period.

References

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  2. ↑ Breve Encuesta Nacional de Autopercepción Racial y Étnica en la República Dominicana. Santo Domingo: Oficina Nacional de Estadística de la República Dominicana. 2022.
  3. ↑ Esteva Fabregat, Claudio «La hispanización del mestizaje cultural en América» Revista Complutense de Historia de América, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. p. 133 (1981)
  4. ↑ "U.S. Department of State People Profiles Latin American Countries". Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
  5. 1 2 Luna Calderón, Fernando (December 2002). "ADN Mitocondrial Taíno en la República Dominicana" [Taíno Mitochondrial DNA in the Dominican Republic](PDF). Kacike (in Spanish) (Special). ISSN   1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 1, 2008.
  6. ↑ "Dominican Republic". Encarta. Microsoft Corporation. Archived from the original on November 14, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2007.
  7. ↑ Ferbel Azcarate, Pedro J. (December 2002). "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic" (PDF). KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology (Special). ISSN   1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2004. Retrieved September 24, 2009.
  8. ↑ Guitar, Lynne (December 2012). "Documenting the Myth of Taíno Extinction" (PDF). Kacike (Special). ISSN   1562-5028 . Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  9. ↑ Martínez Cruzado, Juan Carlos (December 2002). "The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean: Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic" (PDF). Kacike (Special). ISSN   1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 5, 2016. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  10. ↑ Hazard, Samuel (1873). Santo Domingo, Past And Present; With A Glance At Haytl. p.  100.
  11. 1 2 "Corsairs of Santo Domingo a socio-economic study, 1718–1779" (PDF).
  12. ↑ Figueredo, D. H. (2007). Latino Chronology: Chronologies of the American Mosaic. Bloomsbury. ISBN   9780313341540.
  13. ↑ Valverde, Antonio Sánchez (1862). idea del valor de la isla española.
  14. ↑ Peasants and Religion: A Socioeconomic Study of Dios Olivorio and the Palma Sola Religion in the Dominican Republic. p. 565.
  15. ↑ "Dominican Republic—The First Colony". U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  16. ↑ P. J. Ferbel (2002). "La sobrevivencia de la cultura Taína en la República Dominicana" [Survival of the Taino culture in the Dominican Republic] (in Spanish). suncaribbean.net. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  17. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Dominican Republic". Minority Rights Group International – MRGI. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  18. ↑ Race beyond the Plantation: Slavery and Freedom in Colonial Santo Domingo yale.edu
  19. ↑ "Dominican Republic - Press, Broadcasting, Media | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  20. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples". Refworld. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  21. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Dominican Republic". Refworld. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  22. ↑ Moya, Pons Frank. 1977. Historia Colonial de Santo Domingo. 3rd ed. Santiago: Universidad Catolica Madre y Maestra.
  23. 1 2 3 Knight 2014, p. 198.
  24. ↑ "REPÚBLICA DOMINICANA: Población de 12 años y más, por percepción del informante acerca de las facciones, color de piel y otras características culturales de los miembros del hogar, según región, provincia y grupos de edades". one.gob.do. 30 September 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
  25. ↑ Garvey, Marcus; Association, Universal Negro Improvement (2011-07-15). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association. Duke University Press. ISBN   978-0822346906.
  26. ↑ Zeller, Neicy Milagros (1977). "Puerto Plata en el siglo XIX". Estudios Dominicanos (in Spanish). eme eme. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
  27. ↑ Ventura Almonte, Juan. "Presencia de ciudadanos ilustres en Puerto Plata en el siglo XIX" (PDF) (in Spanish). Academia Dominicana de la Historia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
  28. 1 2 3 Montinaro, Francesco; et al. (24 March 2015). "Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations". Nature Communications. 6. See Supplementary Data. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.6596M. doi:10.1038/ncomms7596. PMC   4374169 . PMID   25803618.
  29. 1 2 Moreno-Estrada, Andrés; Gravel, Simon; Zakharia, Fouad; McCauley, Jacob L.; Byrnes, Jake K.; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Ortiz-Tello, Patricia A.; Martínez, Ricardo J.; Hedges, Dale J.; Morris, Richard W.; Eng, Celeste; Sandoval, Karla; Acevedo-Acevedo, Suehelay; Norman, Paul J.; Layrisse, Zulay; Parham, Peter; Martínez-Cruzado, Juan Carlos; Burchard, Esteban González; Cuccaro, Michael L.; Martin, Eden R.; Bustamante, Carlos D. (2013). "Reconstructing the Population Genetic History of the Caribbean". PLOS Genetics. 9 (11): e1003925. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003925 . PMC   3828151 . PMID   24244192.
  30. ↑ Estrada-Veras, Juvianee I.; Cabrera-Peña, Giselle A.; Pérez-Estrella de Ferrán, Ceila (12 May 2016). "Medical genetics and genomic medicine in the Dominican Republic: challenges and opportunities". Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine. 4 (3): 243–256. doi:10.1002/mgg3.224. PMC   4867558 . PMID   27247952.
  31. 1 2 "Admixture in the Americas: Regional and National Differences".
  32. ↑ Rodríguez, Ernesto (11 January 2019). "Ancestry DNA Results: Dominicans are Spaniards Mixed with Africans and Tainos" . Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  33. ↑ Group, 2006-2020, Merit Designs Consulting. "Dominicans are 49% Black, 39% White and 4% Indian" . Retrieved 9 December 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  34. ↑ García Arévalo, Manuel A. (9 December 1995). "Orígenes del mestizaje y de la mulatización en Santo Domingo" . Retrieved 9 December 2023– via repositorio.unphu.edu.do.
  35. ↑ Rodríguez, Ernesto (30 September 2021). "Evidencia del uso de «indio» antes de establecerse la República Dominicana" . Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  36. ↑ Powers, Anne M. (26 September 2011). "Black, White and In Between - Categories of Colour" . Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  37. ↑ Rivera, Lucas (18 May 2012). "The Hypocrisy of the "Pigmentocracy"". Trotter Review. 7 (2). Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  38. ↑ Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture among Hispanic/Latino populations
  39. ↑ A continuum of admixture in the Western Hemisphere revealed by the African Diaspora genome
  40. ↑ Admixture mapping of peripheral artery disease in a Dominican population reveals a putative risk locus on 2q35
  41. ↑ "Marichal, Juan". Baseball Hall of Fame. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
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