Morocco in World War II

Last updated • 10 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Map of French and Spanish protectorates in Morocco in the time of the World War II
.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}
French Morocco (1912-56)
Spanish Morocco (1912-56)
Tangier International Zone (1924-56; occupied 1940-45)
French Algeria and French West Africa
Spain, Spanish Sahara and Spanish Ifni Morocco Protectorate.svg
Map of French and Spanish protectorates in Morocco in the time of the World War II
   French Morocco (1912–56)
   Spanish Morocco (1912–56)

During World War II, Morocco was occupied by Vichy France. However, after the North African campaign (June 1940 – May 1943), Morocco was liberated by the Allies and was thus active in Allied operations until the end of the war. [1]

Contents

Background

Northern Morocco

During this period, Northern Morocco was controlled by Spain through a nominally independent puppet regime headed by a viceroy. While it participated in the Spanish Civil War, like Spain itself, Northern Morocco was officially neutral during World War II. [2]

Southern Morocco

In 1940, France surrendered to Nazi Germany and was divided into two regions, with northern and western France occupied, [3] by German forces headquartered in Paris. In southern and central France, a nominally independent "free zone" was known as Vichy France, after its capital city (Vichy). [3] Around the world, the various French colonial administrations and overseas departments gave their allegiance to either Vichy or the rival Free French and government in exile (located in London) that had remained part of the Allied powers.

A political map of France in 1940-42. (German forces occupied Vichy France from November 1942.) France map Lambert-93 with regions and departments-occupation.svg
A political map of France in 1940–42. (German forces occupied Vichy France from November 1942.)

In southern Morocco, the colonial administration was initially loyal to the Vichy regime. [3] In 1940–42, Moroccan Jews faced significant restrictions, due to the introduction of Vichy anti-Jewish legislation. [4]

Following Allied landings in November 1942, the colonial administration in southern Morocco remained in place, although it switched its affiliation from Vichy to Free France. [1] In January 1943, Allied control also made southern Morocco an ideal location for the Casablanca Conference, where Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt met to discuss wartime operations. [5] On the home front in southern Morocco, daily life changed little, although the nationalist movement attempted to gain momentum, despite facing opposition from French forces. [6] During this period, many indigenous Moroccan soldiers were recruited by Free French forces to fight with the Allies. [7]

Life during World War II

Slavery existed in Morocco before and during the establishment of the French protectorate, with many wealthy Moroccans owning slaves, including the Moroccan royal family. [8] Shanty towns arose near Moroccan cities in the 1930s which continued to grow during the war. [9] European refugees fleeing to Morocco experienced poverty on their arrival, and many of those in Casablanca slept in converted dance halls with poor conditions. [10] Separate educational institutions were set up for the Muslim and the French population. [11] Access to the baccalaureate was provided to the Moroccan Muslim population in 1930, but access to elite French schools (lycees) was not provided to the Muslim population until after the end of the war. [11] Around ninety percent of the Muslim population of Morocco was illiterate during World War II. [4]

Discrimination against Jews

Before World War II, a large portion of Jews in Morocco, much like the majority of the Muslim population, lived in poverty. The bulk of the Jewish population lived in crowded Jewish quarters named mellahs. [4] Resident General Charles Noguès did not allow Jews who enlisted in 1939 and 1940 to fight, but only to work on the industrial side of the war effort. [4] In 1940, laws were put in place by the Vichy administration which disallowed the majority of Jews from working as doctors, lawyers or teachers. [4] All Jews living in other neighbourhoods of Morocco were required to leave their houses and re-inhabit the mellahs. [4] Vichy anti-semitic propaganda was distributed throughout Morocco to encourage the boycotting of Jews. [4] Pamphlets were pinned on the frontages of Jewish shops. [4] Around 7,700 Jews who attempted to flee Morocco in favour of America or Palestine were moved to detention centres. Some refugees considered a threat to the Vichy regime were sent to labour camps. [4] The American landings in 1942 created hope that the Vichy laws would discontinue, but General Noguès persuaded the Allies to allow the continuation of French rule and Vichy laws. [4]

Moroccan nationalist movements

Moroccan anti-occupation nationalist movements gained momentum in Morocco during World War II against the French and Spanish occupation of Morocco. [6] Nationalists in Spanish Morocco created the 'National Reform Party' and the 'Moroccan Unity Movement', which united during the war and were common vehicles for Fascist propaganda. [6] The 1942 landings were encouraged by the nationalists in French Morocco, who hoped the Allies would assist in the fight for Moroccan independence. [6] After Moroccan nationalists in French Morocco then found to have received letters from Ibrahim al-Wazzani, a nationalist in Spanish Morocco who was involved in aiding the Axis powers, the Allies rejected independence and upheld the Vichy laws. [6] On 11 January 1944, a group of Moroccan nationalists, in French Morocco, created a declaration of Moroccan Independence which they proceeded to display to the French Resident General. [6] By 18 January 1944, the Moroccan sultan and other influential figures had demonstrated their approval for the nationalists. [6] French authorities arrested influential nationalists linked to this document and took many to prison camps. [6] However, for many Moroccans, this only worked to increase support for the movement. [6] The British secretly funded many Moroccan nationalist activities in Southern and Northern Morocco, in an attempt to prevent German control of the country. [12]

Moroccan goumiers

Goumiers were indigenous Moroccan soldiers in World War II, initially fighting on behalf of Vichy France and the Axis powers. [7] Fifty-three percent of the soldiers provided to France by its colonial empire in September 1939 came from Morocco and areas of North Africa. [7] After the Allied landing in Casablanca in 1942 (Operation Torch), the French administration in Morocco began to support the Allied powers. [1] The goumiers began to be used by the Allies, mostly in mountain areas due to their effective mountaineering abilities. [7]

Goumiers fought against German forces in Tunisia, successfully removing the Germans in the area and taking over ten thousand prisoners of war. [7] The goumiers also participated in the Sicilian campaign (Operation Husky) and the liberation of Corsica. [7] The German withdrawal from Corsica allowed Allied control of its airfields, for use in subsequent campaigns against France and Italy. [7] The goumiers also successfully conquered the island of Elba, which was being used as a base for German aircraft and E-boats. [7] They also partook in Operation Diadem, where they aided in successfully infiltrating the Axis Gustav line which stretched across the Italian mountains. [7] Moreover, their fighting across the Aurunci mountains helped the Allied troops break the Hitler Line. The taking of Route 6 by the goumiers allowed the Allies to enter and liberate Rome. [7] In July, the goumiers went on to liberate Sienna from German control. [7] Ten thousand goumiers successfully liberated Marseilles from German control, driving the German troops to Vieux-Port, with General Schaeffer ordering his German troops to surrender the city in August 1944. [7]

After pushing the German troops back at Monte Cassino in Italy, the Moroccan forces of the French army were granted fifty hours of total freedom from punishment for crime. [13] During this time, many rapes and murders were committed against the Italian people in what was called the Marocchinate . [13] The monument Mamma Ciociara, in Sacco of the Campania region, was designed to pay tribute to the women who were abused and lost their lives during this event. [13]

Propaganda

The Germans, the British, and the French all employed propaganda in Morocco in World War II. [14] From 1939, using Radio Berlin and Radio Stuttgart, Nazi Germany broadcast propaganda throughout Morocco. [14] This propaganda significantly promoted the German-Muslim relationship, whilst being largely anti-semitic. [14] From 1943, the Moroccan Bureau du Maghreb Arab, created the journal 'al-maghrib al arabi' to disseminate Nazi propaganda. [14] The BBC began broadcasting news of the war to Morocco in 1939, presenting a pro-Britain outlook. Broadcasts from Radio London attempted to present Britain as benevolent to gain the support of Morocco's population. [14] In 1942, Moroccan dialects were introduced to the British broadcasts, in an attempt to successfully reach more people. [14] Propaganda was also used by the French in Morocco towards the indigenous Moroccan soldiers. [14] Newspapers such as the Annasr attempted to establish a feeling of nationalism in the goumiers. Many images were used in this propaganda to allow it to be accessible to illiterate soldiers. [14]

Military events

Operation Torch

Around 90,000 Allied forces, sailing from ports in Virginia and in Britain, [15] amphibiously landed at Algeria and Morocco on 8 November 1942. [16] The invasion was meant to force the Vichy territories of North Africa into Allied control [17] while allowing movement through the African coast. [7]

The Moroccan sultan, Sidi Mohammed Ben Youssef, welcomed Allied forces. [1] Around 60,000 French troops resisted the Allied invasion while many deserted to join the Allied forces. [15] Despite Vichy resistance, the Allied forces took control of Fedala, Safi, and Casablanca by 11 November 1942 and a ceasefire was negotiated on the same day. [15] Following this, Vichy French forces fought for the Allied powers, per an agreement enforced on November 13, 1942. [15] This switch in alliance caused Hitler to occupy the entirety of France and to send Axis forces to fight the Allies in the Mediterranean theatre. [15]

Medical units were significantly lacking when the Western Task Force of the Allied troops landed in Morocco on 8 November 1942. [18] Only twenty ambulances were fit for use and surgical operations taking place that night had only three torches for lighting. [18] A single fridge (which was purchased from a Moroccan merchant) was available for refrigeration of supplies. [18] As there was a lack of transportation, it took an extended period for supplies coming off the ships to reach medical units. [18] Allied forces in their campaigns in Italy supplied the goumiers and French army with medical officers who carried medical bags containing basic medical supplies, so care could still be applied in the event of delay of supplies. [18] The Allies also provided what was known as "evacuation hospitals", which contained Allied medical staff who landed in Morocco with forces during Operation Torch. [18] These hospitals followed the French colonial army on campaigns in Morocco and in the Italian region. The hospitals would set up 18 miles behind the front line and provide medical care for wounded soldiers. [18]

Casablanca Conference

In January 1943, Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, accompanied by their advisors, met secretly in a hotel in Casablanca to discuss current issues and to decide Allied war strategies. [5] A policy of unconditional surrender was adopted at this conference. [19] According to Roosevelt, this was to ensure

"the destruction of the philosophies in those countries which are based on conquest and the subjugation of other people." [19]

Roosevelt also met with Sultan Mohammed V of Morocco at the Casablanca Conference and urged him to work towards independence for Morocco from Spanish and French forces. [20]

Sultan Mohammad V

Sidi Mohammed Ben Youssef of Morocco, or Mohammad V, was the Sultan of Morocco during the World War II period. [21] He was chosen by the French Residency to be Sultan because it was believed that he would be the easiest of his siblings for French officials to successfully control. [21]

As Morocco was under Vichy control, Mohammad V had little power to prevent Vichy discrimination laws, but he expressed his moral objection to them in his dealings with French officials. [21] Mohammad V did protect the Jewish population in some ways, preventing the use of the Star of David from being used to identify Jewish subjects in Morocco. [21] He also insisted Vichy laws apply only to those who identified religiously as Jewish, rather than based on birth, as was standard Nazi policy. [22] Mohammad V also invited Jewish subjects to a banquet he hosted in 1941 without French approval. [21]

Following the landings of the Allies in Morocco, President Roosevelt wrote to Mohammad V saying that the Allies would be benevolent subjugators in Morocco. [23] In his letter, he wrote:

"The arrival of the American forces in your country in collaboration with forces of the protecting power is merely a token of American intention to assist in defending your sovereignty and in protecting your country and mine against a common enemy whose power will be destroyed." [23]

Mohammad V replied:

"The first contacts between people who do not know each other well enough are always marked by hesitation and reticence, but progressively a reciprocal understanding is established between them, they are followed by esteem and friendship which creates a cooperative effort profitable to all." [23]

Aftermath

For several years after World War II, the United States and other former Allies continued to be involved in Morocco, whose resources were used during the Cold War. [20] In 1951, the US had five air bases in use in Morocco. [20] In 1953, Mohammad V was exiled to Corsica [20] for refusing to approve the enforcement of several French laws, [20] then Madagascar. [24] Two years later, he was allowed to return due to violence that occurred during his absence.

On 2 March 1956, a Franco-Moroccan agreement overrode the Treaty of Fez that had established the French protectorate. [20] [25] Morocco became independent on 7 April 1956 when France relinquished control of the area.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Torch</span> Allied landing operations in French North Africa during World War II

Operation Torch was an Allied invasion of French North Africa during the Second World War. Torch was a compromise operation that met the British objective of securing victory in North Africa while allowing American armed forces the opportunity to begin their fight against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy on a limited scale. It was the first mass involvement of US troops in the European–North African Theatre and saw the first airborne assault carried out by the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mohammed V of Morocco</span> Ruler of Morocco (1927–1953; 1955–1961)

Mohammed al-Khamis bin Yusef bin Hassan al-Alawi, better known simply Mohammed V, was the last Sultan of Morocco from 1927 to 1953 and from 1955 to 1957, and first King of Morocco from 1957 to 1961. A member of the 'Alawi dynasty, he played an instrumental role in securing the independence of Morocco from the French and Spanish Protectorates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maghrebi Jews</span> Jewish diaspora of Northwest Africa

Maghrebi Jews, are a Jewish diaspora group with a long history in the Maghreb region of North Africa, which includes present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. These communities were established long before the Arab conquest, and continued to develop under Muslim rule during the Middle Ages. Maghrebi Jews represent the second-largest Jewish diaspora group, with their descendants forming a major part of the global Jewish population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">French protectorate in Morocco</span> 1912–1956 protectorate in northwest Africa

The French protectorate in Morocco, also known as French Morocco, was the period of French colonial rule in Morocco that lasted from 1912 to 1956. The protectorate was officially established 30 March 1912, when Sultan Abd al-Hafid signed the Treaty of Fez, though the French military occupation of Morocco had begun with the invasion of Oujda and the bombardment of Casablanca in 1907.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casablanca Conference</span> 1943 conference between Allied leaders for WWII military planning

The Casablanca Conference or Anfa Conference was held in Casablanca, French Morocco, from January 14 to 24, 1943, to plan the Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II. The main discussions were between US President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Stalin could not attend. Key decisions included a commitment to demand Axis powers' unconditional surrender; plans for an invasion of Sicily and Italy before the main invasion of France; an intensified strategic bombing campaign against Germany; and approval of a US Navy plan to advance on Japan through the central Pacific and the Philippines. The last item authorized the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific, which shortened the war. Of all the decisions made, the most important was the Allied invasion of Sicily, which Churchill pushed for in part to divert American attention from opening a second front in France in 1943, a move that he feared would result in very high Allied casualties and not be possible until 1944.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Jews in Morocco</span>

The history of the Jews in Morocco goes back to ancient times. Moroccan Jews constitute an ancient community. Before the founding of the State of Israel in 1948, there were about 265,000 Jews in the country, with a maximum of between 250,000 and 350,000 at its peak in the 1950s, which gave Morocco the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world, but by 2017 only 2,000 or so remained. Jews in Morocco, originally speakers of Berber languages, Judeo-Moroccan Arabic or Judaeo-Spanish, were the first in the country to adopt the French language in the mid-19th century, and unlike among the Muslim population French remains the main language of members of the Jewish community there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moroccan Goumier</span> Military unit

The Moroccan Goumiers were indigenous Moroccan soldiers who served in auxiliary units attached to the French Army of Africa, between 1908 and 1956. While nominally in the service of the Sultan of Morocco, they served under French officers, including a period as part of the Free French Forces.

Jews outside Europe under Axis occupation suffered greatly during World War II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spain during World War II</span>

During World War II, the Spanish State under Francisco Franco espoused neutrality as its official wartime policy. This neutrality wavered at times, and "strict neutrality" gave way to "non-belligerence" after the Fall of France in June 1940. Franco wrote to Adolf Hitler offering to join the war on 19 June 1940 in exchange for help building Spain's colonial empire. Later in the same year Franco met with Hitler in Hendaye to discuss Spain's possible accession to the Axis Powers. The meeting was not successful, but Franco did help the Axis—whose members Italy and Germany had supported him during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)—in various ways.

In World War II, many governments, organizations and individuals collaborated with the Axis powers, "out of conviction, desperation, or under coercion." Nationalists sometimes welcomed German or Italian troops they believed would liberate their countries from colonization. The Danish, Belgian and Vichy French governments attempted to appease and bargain with the invaders in hopes of mitigating harm to their citizens and economies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">José Aboulker</span> Algerian Jewish resistance leader (1920–2009)

José Aboulker was an Algerian Jew and the leader of the anti-Nazi resistance in French Algeria in World War II. He received the U.S. Medal of Freedom, the Croix de Guerre, and was made a Companion of the Liberation and a Commander of the Légion d'honneur. After the war, he became a neurosurgeon and a political figure in France, who advocated for the political rights of Algerian Muslims.

The French State, popularly known as Vichy France, as led by Marshal Philippe Pétain after the Fall of France in 1940 before Nazi Germany, was quickly recognized by the Allies, as well as by the Soviet Union, until 30 June 1941 and Operation Barbarossa. However, France broke with the United Kingdom after the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir. Canada maintained diplomatic relations until the occupation of Southern France by Germany and Italy in November 1942.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vichy French Air Force</span> Military unit

The Vichy French Air Force, usually referred to as the Air Force of Vichy or Armistice Air Force for clarity, was the aerial branch of the Armistice Army of Vichy France established in the aftermath of the Fall of France in June 1940. The Vichy French Air Force existed between June 1940 and December 1942 and largely served to defend Vichy French territories abroad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crémieux Decree</span> 1870 French decree regarding Algerian Jews

The Crémieux Decree was a law that granted French citizenship to the majority of the Jewish population in French Algeria, signed by the Government of National Defense on 24 October 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War. It was named after French-Jewish lawyer and Minister of Justice Adolphe Crémieux.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vichy France</span> Puppet state of Nazi Germany (1940–1944)

Vichy France, officially the French State, was a French puppet and rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. It was named after its seat of government, the city of Vichy. Officially independent, but with half of its territory occupied under the harsh terms of the 1940 armistice with Nazi Germany, it adopted a policy of collaboration. Though Paris was nominally its capital, the government established itself in the resort town of Vichy in the unoccupied "free zone", where it remained responsible for the civil administration of France as well as its colonies. The occupation of France by Nazi Germany at first affected only the northern and western portions of the country, but in November 1942 the Germans and Italians occupied the remainder of Metropolitan France, ending any pretence of independence by the Vichy government.

A number of Muslims participated in efforts to help save Jewish residents of European and Arab lands from the Holocaust while fascist regimes controlled the territory. From June 1940 through May 1943, Axis powers, namely Germany and Italy, controlled large portions of Southeastern Europe and North Africa. Approximately 1 percent of the Jewish residents, about 4,000 to 5,000 Jews, of that territory were murdered by these regimes during this period. The relatively small percentage of Jewish casualties, as compared to the 60 percent of European Jews who were murdered during the Holocaust, is largely due to the successful Allied North African Campaign and the repelling of the Axis powers from North Africa.

The diplomatic history of World War II includes the major foreign policies and interactions inside the opposing coalitions, the Allies of World War II and the Axis powers, between 1939 and 1945.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Géo Gras Group</span> WW II French resistance group

The Géo Gras Group was a French resistance movement that played a decisive role during Operation Torch, the British-American invasion of French North Africa during World War II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madagascar in World War II</span>

Madagascar, then officially known as French Madagascar, was a French colony at the outbreak of the Second World War, having been under French administration since 1885. It played an important role in the war due to the presence of critically important harbors, the contribution of Malagasy troops, and was also the scene of fighting between Allied and Vichy French forces in 1942. After the fall of France in 1940, Madagascar became a crucial flashpoint in contention between the Free French movement and Vichy France. The island was also consequential in the Pacific theater of the war as Imperial Japanese naval forces operated unopposed off the island for some time.

The French Civil and Military High Command   was an administrative and military governing body in Algiers that was created in connection with the Allied landings in French North Africa on 7 and 8 November 1942 as part of Operation Torch. It came about as a result of negotiations between the Americans and two military figures from Vichy France whom the Americans believed could assure safe passage for the landing forces, namely Henri Giraud and François Darlan.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Baida, Jamaâ (2014-08-08). "The American landing in November 1942: a turning point in Morocco's contemporary history". The Journal of North African Studies. 19 (4): 518–523. doi:10.1080/13629387.2014.946825. ISSN   1362-9387. S2CID   144349191.
  2. "Morocco - The Spanish Zone". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
  3. 1 2 3 Michalczyk, John J., ed. (2018). Nazi law : from Nuremberg to Nuremberg. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN   9781350007239. OCLC   1024108321.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kenbib, Mohammed (2014-08-08). "Moroccan Jews and the Vichy regime, 1940–42". The Journal of North African Studies. 19 (4): 540–553. doi:10.1080/13629387.2014.950523. ISSN   1362-9387. S2CID   144757688.
  5. 1 2 Farrell, Brian P. (1993). "Symbol of Paradox: The Casablanca Conference, 1943". Canadian Journal of History. 28 (1): 21–40. doi:10.3138/cjh.28.1.21. ISSN   0008-4107.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cline, Walter B. (1947). "Nationalism in Morocco". Middle East Journal. 1 (1): 18–28. JSTOR   4321825.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Maghraoui, Driss (2014-08-08). "The goumiers in the Second World War: history and colonial representation". The Journal of North African Studies. 19 (4): 571–586. doi:10.1080/13629387.2014.948309. ISSN   1362-9387. S2CID   144080194.
  8. Goodman, R. D. (2013-08-21). "Expediency, Ambivalence, and Inaction: The French Protectorate and Domestic Slavery in Morocco, 1912-1956". Journal of Social History. 47 (1): 101–131. doi: 10.1093/jsh/sht053 . ISSN   0022-4529.
  9. "Morocco - Settlement patterns". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-10-04.
  10. Hindley, Meredith (2017). Destination Casablanca: exile, espionage, and the battle for North Africa in World War II. PublicAffairs. ISBN   9781610394055. OCLC   999401044.
  11. 1 2 Segalla, Spencer D. (2006). "French colonial education and elite Moroccan Muslim resistance, from the treaty of fes to the Berber Dahir". The Journal of North African Studies. 11 (1): 85–106. doi:10.1080/13629380500409925. ISSN   1362-9387. S2CID   55247526.
  12. Roslington, James (2014-08-08). "'England is fighting us everywhere': geopolitics and conspiracy thinking in wartime Morocco". The Journal of North African Studies. 19 (4): 501–517. doi:10.1080/13629387.2014.945715. ISSN   1362-9387. S2CID   145067317.
  13. 1 2 3 "Le marocchinate: Ciociaria, maggio 1944, gli stupri di gruppo come premio alle truppe coloniali francesi". Gli scrittori della porta accanto - Non solo libri. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Byfield, Judith A.; Brown, Carolyn A.; Parsons, Timothy; Sikainga, Ahmad Alawad (2015-04-20). Africa and World War II. New York. ISBN   9781107053205. OCLC   884305076.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Remembering Operation Torch: Allied Forces Land in North Africa during World War II | American Battle Monuments Commission". www.abmc.gov. 8 November 2017. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  16. Walker, David A. (1987). "OSS and Operation Torch". Journal of Contemporary History. 22 (4): 667–679. doi:10.1177/002200948702200406. JSTOR   260815. S2CID   159522532.
  17. Middleton, Drew (7 November 1982). "THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AFRICA". The New York Times. Retrieved 2018-09-23.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Office of Medical History". history.amedd.army.mil. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  19. 1 2 "Milestones: 1937–1945 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-01.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rivlin, Benjamin (1982). "The United States and Moroccan International Status, 1943-1956: A Contributory Factor in Morocco's Reassertion of Independence from France". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 15 (1): 64–82. doi:10.2307/218449. JSTOR   218449.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Hurowitz, Richard (25 April 2017). "You must remember this: Sultan Mohammed V protected the Jews of Casablanca". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  22. Afridi, Mehnaz M. (2014-08-04). "The Role of Muslims and the Holocaust". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935420.013.005. ISBN   978-0-19-993542-0.
  23. 1 2 3 "LETTER TO YOUR MAJESTY: FROM FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT | CIA FOIA (foia.cia.gov)". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on January 23, 2017. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  24. "Muḥammad V | sultan of Morocco". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
  25. Correspondent, our own (1956-03-03). "An Independent Morocco". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-11-05.{{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)