Mother of vinegar

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Mother of vinegar in a bottle. Mother of vinegar.png
Mother of vinegar in a bottle.

Mother of vinegar is a biofilm composed of a form of cellulose, yeast, and bacteria that sometimes develops on fermenting alcoholic liquids during the process that turns alcohol into acetic acid with the help of oxygen from the air and acetic acid bacteria (AAB). It is similar to the symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) mostly known from production of kombucha, but develops to a much lesser extent due to lesser availability of yeast, which is often no longer present in wine/cider at this stage, and a different population of bacteria. Mother of vinegar is often added to wine, cider, or other alcoholic liquids to produce vinegar at home, although only the bacteria is required, [1] but historically has also been used in large scale production.

Contents

Discovery

Hermann Boerhaave was one of the first scientists to study vinegar. In the early 1700s, he showed the importance of the mother of vinegar in the acetification process, and how having an increased oxidation surface allowed for better vinegar production. He called the mother a "vegetal substance" or "flower." [2]

In 1822, South African botanist, Christian Hendrik Persoon named the mother of vinegar Mycoderma, which he believed was a fungus. He attributed the vinegar production to the Mycoderma, since it formed on the surface of wine when it has been left open to air. [2]

In 1861, Louis Pasteur made the conclusion that vinegar is made by a "plant" that belonged to the group Mycoderma, and not made purely by chemical oxidation of ethanol. He named the plant Mycoderma aceti. [2] Mycoderma aceti, is a Neo-Latin expression, from the Greek μύκης ("fungus") plus δέρμα ("skin"), and the Latin aceti ("of the acid"). [3]

Martinus Willem Beijerinck, who was a founder of modern microbiology, identified acetic acid bacteria in the mother of vinegar. He named the bacteria Acetobacter aceti in 1898. [2] In 1935, Toshinobu Asai, a Japanese microbiologst, discovered a new genus of bacteria in the mother of vinegar, Gluconobacter. After this discovery, 12 genera and 59 species of bacteria were found to compose the AAB found in mother of vinegar. [2]

Description

Slab of mother of vinegar taken from a fermentation tank. Vinegar.mother.jpg
Slab of mother of vinegar taken from a fermentation tank.

Mother of Vinegar is a single-cell fungus related to yeast. It forms a grayish veil which can be fine or more solid depending on the conditions. The veil forms in conditions that include nutrients like proteins that are found in wine, limited acidity, and ideal concentrations of alcohol. [4]

Bacteria

The veil is nontoxic and is composed of cellulose and AAB. The raw materials and other manufacturing features determine what genus the bacteria that composes the AAB is from. PCR fingerprinting revealed that Acetobacter genus was the most abundant in mother of vinegar resulting from apples, while Komagataeibacter genus was most dominant in mother of vinegar resulting from grapes. Mother of vinegar from apples had A. okinawenis as the most abundant species of bacteria. Grape vinegar and the mother had K. europaeus as the most dominant bacterial species. [5]

Mother of vinegar that is composed of Acetobacter. Mere-de-vinaigre.jpg
Mother of vinegar that is composed of Acetobacter.

There are also many other bacterial genera that are in mother of vinegar. Polymerase Chain Reaction Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) was used to detect the bacterial components and genera in vinegar. These groups include: Acetobacter, Acidomonas, Ameyamaea, Asaia, Gluconacetobacter, Gluconobacter, Granulibacter, Komagataeibacter, Kozakia, Neoasaia, Saccharibacter, Swaminathania, and Tanticharoenia. These bacteria are normally gram-negative or gram-variable and have polar flagella. They also need an aerobic environment to grow and prefer an environment with a pH of 5-6.5 but can survive in pH of 3-4. They are non-spore forming bacteria. These bacteria are difficult to find in spontaneous fermentation. This is because they are in competition with other microbial groups during the time the mother of vinegar is in the viable but not culturable (VBNC) state.  The genera, Gluconacetobacter and Komagataeibacter produce high levels of bacterial cellulose, which is what mother of vinegar is composed of. [6]

Bacterial culture of mother of vinegar Mycoderma aceti in vinegar. Wellcome M0008824.jpg
Bacterial culture of mother of vinegar

The amount of Gluconacetobacter and Acetobacter in the mother of vinegar is associated with the concentration of acetic acid in the vinegar. Vinegars with a concentration of acetic acid greater than 6% contained more Gluconacetobacter, while those with a concentration of less than 6% typically see Acetobacter present. However, on an industrial scale, Acetobacter was seen in acetic acid concentrations of 11.5-12%. [6]

Lactic acid bacteria are also present in mother of vinegar to aid in the breakdown of carbohydrates in the alcohol fermentation process. Lactic acid bacteria create lactic acid, which results in a pH decrease in the final vinegar product. In Shanxi aged vinegar, there were 7 species of 3 different bacterial genera present in its mother of vinegar. These species include, Limosilactobacillus fermentum (formerly Lactobacillus fermentum), Weissella confusa, Lentilactobacillus buchneri (aka Lactobacillus buchneri), Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (aka Lactobacillus plantarum), Lacticaseibacillus casei (formerly Lactobacillus casei), Pediococcus acidilactici , and P. pentosaceus. These bacteria are all gram-positive, long rod-shaped, or elliptical shaped. There were very few cocci shaped bacteria present. [7]

Yeast

Mother of vinegar is also composed of yeasts that ferment the sugars in the wine, cider, or other alcoholic liquids into ethanol. In Shanxi aged vinegar, there were 47 types of yeast found during alcoholic fermentation. However, the three main strains found in the mother of vinegar included, S.cerevisae, P.anomala, and C.berkhout, with S.cerevisae being the most abundant species in the fermentation stage. After the fermentation, S.cerevisiae dominates in growth, due to species having a tolerance to ethanol. [7]

Applications

Mother of vinegar is used as an aid in the production of vinegar. There are some drawbacks. If the mother of vinegar does not penetrate the mass of the vinegar, then it disrupts the vinegar making process. This is because the mycoderms consume the oxygen in the wine, breaking it down. Having a thick layer of mother of vinegar can also destroy the odorant compounds in vinegar. A way to avoid these side effects is to only use the surface veil of mother of vinegar. [4]

Store-bought vinegar with mother of vinegar at the bottom. Vinegar with the mother.jpg
Store-bought vinegar with mother of vinegar at the bottom.

Vinegar can be made on a mass scale. A system that utilizes mother of vinegar is called Orleans or French. It was named this since many wines were sold to vinegar brewers at Orleans, which is a port on the Loire, in France. The system grows mother of vinegar on a big surface. The mother is fed with organic liquids that are rich in phosphates and nitrogen. The mother is then placed on top of the wine in big shallow vats. The vat is then covered with another vat or just a cover. The mother acetifies the wine into vinegar. [2]

Mother of vinegar is also used in the traditional production of balsamic vinegar. Balsamic vinegar is created by cooking down grape juice to create a concentrate. The concentrate is poured into a demijohn and is left to sit throughout the winter. In the spring, the concentrate is transferred to a wooden barrel. By summer, mother of vinegar is used to start the vinegar fermentation. The concentrate and mother are then separated into different barrels of varying wood types. The vinegar is created over the course of 13 years. [2]

Mother of vinegar can also form in store-bought vinegar if there is some residual sugar, leftover yeast and bacteria and/or alcohol contained in the vinegar. This is more common in unpasteurized vinegar, since the pasteurization might not stabilize the process completely. While not necessarily appetizing in appearance, mother of vinegar is completely harmless and the surrounding vinegar does not have to be discarded because of it. It can be filtered out using a coffee filter, used to start a bottle of vinegar, or simply ignored. [8]

Mother of kombucha

Kombucha mother. Kombucha culture.jpg
Kombucha mother.
Mother of vinegar taken from apple cider vinegar. Essigmutter von apfelessig.jpg
Mother of vinegar taken from apple cider vinegar.

Mother of vinegar and mother of kombucha share many similarities, but they are different. Kombucha mother is created from the fermentation of tea, while Mother of vinegar is created from the fermentation of wine, cider, or other alcoholic beverages. The fermentation process of tea creates SCOBY. The SCOBY creates a bacterial cellulose film, like that seen in mother of vinegar. The bacteria also oxidizes the alcohol to create acetic acid. The main bacterial genus involved in the mother of kombucha is Acetobacter, which is also a main genus in mother of vinegar. Kombucha mother also has the bacteria genus Gluconobacter, which is found in some vinegar types. [9] Both vinegar and kombucha mothers contain yeast, which ferments sugars to ethanol. After the fermentation process, the AAB oxidizes the ethanol into acetic acid.

The main difference between mother of vinegar and mother of kombucha is the acetic acid tolerance. Vinegar has a higher acetic acid concentration than kombucha, therefore the species in mother of vinegar needs to tolerate higher levels of acetic acid. [10] Due to the differences in the compositions of the mothers, mother of vinegar cannot be used to produce kombucha due to it not being derived from tea and its bacteria having different characteristics.

See also

Related Research Articles

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of Gram-negative bacteria which oxidize sugars or ethanol and produce acetic acid during fermentation. The acetic acid bacteria consist of 10 genera in the family Acetobacteraceae. Several species of acetic acid bacteria are used in industry for production of certain foods and chemicals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kombucha</span> Fermented tea beverage

Kombucha is a fermented, lightly effervescent, sweetened black tea drink. Sometimes the beverage is called kombucha tea to distinguish it from the culture of bacteria and yeast. Juice, spices, fruit or other flavorings are often added.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Winemaking</span> Production of wine

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Acetobacter is a genus of acetic acid bacteria. Acetic acid bacteria are characterized by the ability to convert ethanol to acetic acid in the presence of oxygen. Of these, the genus Acetobacter is distinguished by the ability to oxidize lactate and acetate into carbon dioxide and water. Bacteria of the genus Acetobacter have been isolated from industrial vinegar fermentation processes and are frequently used as fermentation starter cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malolactic fermentation</span> Process in winemaking

Malolactic conversion is a process in winemaking in which tart-tasting malic acid, naturally present in grape must, is converted to softer-tasting lactic acid. Malolactic fermentation is most often performed as a secondary fermentation shortly after the end of the primary fermentation, but can sometimes run concurrently with it. The process is standard for most red wine production and common for some white grape varieties such as Chardonnay, where it can impart a "buttery" flavor from diacetyl, a byproduct of the reaction.

A wine fault is a sensory-associated (organoleptic) characteristic of a wine that is unpleasant, and may include elements of taste, smell, or appearance, elements that may arise from a "chemical or a microbial origin", where particular sensory experiences might arise from more than one wine fault. Wine faults may result from poor winemaking practices or storage conditions that lead to wine spoilage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactic acid bacteria</span> Order of bacteria

Lactobacillales are an order of gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant, generally nonsporulating, nonrespiring, either rod-shaped (bacilli) or spherical (cocci) bacteria that share common metabolic and physiological characteristics. These bacteria, usually found in decomposing plants and milk products, produce lactic acid as the major metabolic end product of carbohydrate fermentation, giving them the common name lactic acid bacteria (LAB).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apple cider vinegar</span> Vinegar made from fermented apple juice

Apple cider vinegar, or cider vinegar, is a vinegar made from cider, and used in salad dressings, marinades, vinaigrettes, food preservatives, and chutneys. It is made by crushing apples, then squeezing out the juice. The apple juice is then fermented by yeast which converts the sugars in the juice to ethanol. In a second fermentation step, the ethanol is converted into acetic acid by acetic acid-forming bacteria, yielding cider vinegar. Acetic acid and malic acid combine to give this vinegar its sour taste.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">SCOBY</span> Symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast

Symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) is a culinary symbiotic fermentation culture (starter) consisting of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), acetic acid bacteria (AAB), and yeast which arises in the preparation of sour foods and beverages such as kombucha. Beer and wine also undergo fermentation with yeast, but the lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria components unique to SCOBY are usually viewed as a source of spoilage rather than a desired addition. Both LAB and AAB enter on the surface of barley and malt in beer fermentation and grapes in wine fermentation; LAB lowers the pH of the beer/wine while AAB takes the ethanol produced from the yeast and oxidizes it further into vinegar, resulting in a sour taste and smell. AAB are also responsible for the formation of the cellulose SCOBY.

Lentilactobacillus buchneri is a gram-positive, non-spore forming, anaerobic, rod prokaryote. L. buchneri is a heterofermentative bacteria that produces lactic acid and acetic acid during fermentation. It is used as a bacterial inoculant to improve the aerobic stability of silage. These bacteria are inoculated and used for preventing heating and spoilage after exposure to air.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acids in wine</span>

The acids in wine are an important component in both winemaking and the finished product of wine. They are present in both grapes and wine, having direct influences on the color, balance and taste of the wine as well as the growth and vitality of yeast during fermentation and protecting the wine from bacteria. The measure of the amount of acidity in wine is known as the “titratable acidity” or “total acidity”, which refers to the test that yields the total of all acids present, while strength of acidity is measured according to pH, with most wines having a pH between 2.9 and 3.9. Generally, the lower the pH, the higher the acidity in the wine. There is no direct connection between total acidity and pH. In wine tasting, the term “acidity” refers to the fresh, tart and sour attributes of the wine which are evaluated in relation to how well the acidity balances out the sweetness and bitter components of the wine such as tannins. Three primary acids are found in wine grapes: tartaric, malic, and citric acids. During the course of winemaking and in the finished wines, acetic, butyric, lactic, and succinic acids can play significant roles. Most of the acids involved with wine are fixed acids with the notable exception of acetic acid, mostly found in vinegar, which is volatile and can contribute to the wine fault known as volatile acidity. Sometimes, additional acids, such as ascorbic, sorbic and sulfurous acids, are used in winemaking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cider</span> Fermented alcoholic beverage from apple juice

Cider is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of apples. Cider is widely available in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The UK has the world's highest per capita consumption, as well as the largest cider-producing companies. Ciders from the South West of England are generally higher in alcoholic content. Cider is also popular in many Commonwealth countries, such as India, South Africa, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and New England. As well as the UK and its former colonies, cider is popular in Portugal, France, Friuli, and northern Spain. Germany also has its own types of cider with Rhineland-Palatinate and Hesse producing a particularly tart version known as Apfelwein. In the U.S. and Canada, varieties of alcoholic cider are often called hard cider to distinguish it from non-alcoholic apple cider or "sweet cider", also made from apples. In Canada, cider cannot contain less than 2.5% or over 13% absolute alcohol by volume.

Alcohol dehydrogenase (quinone) (EC 1.1.5.5, type III ADH, membrane associated quinohaemoprotein alcohol dehydrogenase) is an enzyme with systematic name alcohol:quinone oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

<i>Acetobacter aceti</i> Species of bacterium

Acetobacter aceti, a Gram-negative bacterium that moves using its peritrichous flagella, was discovered when Louis Pasteur proved it to be the cause of conversion of ethanol to acetic acid in 1864. Today, A.aceti is recognized as a species within the genus Acetobacter, belonging to the family Acetobacteraceae in the class Alphaproteobacteria. Its bacterial motility plays an important role in the formation of biofilms, intricate communities where A. aceti cells aggregate and collaborate, further enhancing their ability to metabolize ethanol and produce acetic acid. Widely distributed in various environmental niches, this benign microorganism thrives in habitats abundant in fermentable sugars, such as flowers, fruits, honey, water, and soil, present wherever sugar fermentation occurs. A. aceti grows best within temperatures ranging from 25 to 30 degrees Celsius, with an upper limit of 35 degrees Celsius, and in slightly acidic conditions with a pH between 5.5 to 6.3. A. aceti has long been used in the fermentation industry efficiently producing acetic acid from alcohol as an obligate aerobe dependent on oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. A. aceti, classified as an acidophile, able to survive in acidic environments, possesses an acidified cytoplasm, providing most proteins with acid stability. The microorganism's ability to thrive in environments rich in fermentable sugars shows its potential as an organism for studying microbial metabolism and adaptation.

Fructilactobacillus fructivorans is a gram-positive bacteria and a member of the genus Fructilactobacillus in the family Lactobacillaceae. It is found in wine, beer, grape must, dairy, sauerkraut, meat, and fish. They are facultative anaerobics and experience best growth in environments with 5-10% CO2. Temperature for growth is between 2 °C and 53 °C, with the optimum temperature between 30 °C and 40 °C and a pH level between 5.5 and 6.2. The bacterium is rod shaped and can be found in the following forms: single, pairs, chains of varying lengths, or long curved filaments. Lactobacillus fructivorans is non-motile. The main end product of the metabolic process is lactate, although ethanol, acetate, formate, CO2, and succinate may also be produced.

Lentilactobacillus hilgardii is a species of bacterium found in wine, dairy products, and wine musts.

Symbiotic fermentation is a form of fermentation in which multiple organisms interact in symbiosis in order to produce the desired product. For example, a yeast may produce ethanol, which is then consumed by an acetic acid bacterium. Described early on as the fermentation of sugars following saccharification in a mixed fermentation process.

Komagataeibacter xylinus is a species of bacteria best known for its ability to produce cellulose, specifically bacterial cellulose.

References

  1. ↑ William Theodore Brannt (1889). A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit-wines. H.C. Baird & Company. pp. 34–38. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bourgeois, Jacques; Barja, François (2009). "The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems" (PDF). Archives des Sciences. 62: 147–160.
  3. ↑ Fuchs, G. [Ed.] (2006) Allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 8. ed., Thieme press, Stuttgart
  4. 1 2 This, Herve (2010). Kitchen Mysteries: Revealing the Science of Cooking. Columbia University Press. pp. 190–191. ISBN   9780231141710.
  5. ↑ Yetiman, Ahmet E.; Kesmen, Zülal (2015). "Identification of acetic acid bacteria in traditionally produced vinegar and mother of vinegar by using different molecular techniques". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 204: 9–16 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  6. 1 2 Milanovic, Vesna; Osimani, Andrea; Garofalo, Cristiana; De Filippis, Francesca; Ercolini, Danilo; Cardinali, Federica; Taccari, Manuela; Aquilanti, Lucia; Clementi, Francesca (2018). "Profiling white wine seed vinegar bacterial diversity through viable counting, metagenomic sequencing and PCR-DGGE". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 286: 66–74 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  7. 1 2 "Biodiversity of yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria in the fermentation of "Shanxi aged vinegar", a traditional Chinese vinegar". Food Microbiology. 30 (1): 289–297. 2012-05-01. doi:10.1016/j.fm.2011.08.010. ISSN   0740-0020.
  8. ↑ "Mother of vinegar fact sheet". Canadian food inspection agency. Retrieved 13 Nov 2021.
  9. ↑ Coelho, Raquel Macedo Dantas; Almeida, Aryelle Leite de; Amaral, Rafael Queiroz Gurgel do; Mota, Robson Nascimento da; Sousa, Paulo Henrique M. de (2020-12-01). "Kombucha: Review". International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science. 22: 100272. doi:10.1016/j.ijgfs.2020.100272. ISSN   1878-450X.
  10. ↑ Gomes, Rodrigo José 1; Borges, Maria de Fatima 2; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas 2; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan 1; Spinosa, Wilma Aparecida 1 1 Department of Food Science; Technology, State University of Londrina (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications": 139–151. doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593. PMC   6117990 .{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)


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