Lacticaseibacillus casei

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Lacticaseibacillus casei
Lactobacillus casei 1.jpg
Lactobacillus casei in a Petri dish
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Bacillota
Class: Bacilli
Order: Lactobacillales
Family: Lactobacillaceae
Genus: Lacticaseibacillus
Species:
L. casei
Binomial name
Lacticaseibacillus casei
(Orla-Jensen 1916) Zheng et al. 2020
Synonyms
  • "Caseobacterium vulgare" Orla-Jensen 1916
  • Lactobacillus casei(Orla-Jensen 1916) Hansen and Lessel 1971 (Approved Lists 1980)

Lacticaseibacillus casei is an organism that belongs to the largest genus in the family Lactobacillaceae , a lactic acid bacteria (LAB), that was previously classified as Lactobacillus casei. [1] This bacteria has been identified as facultatively anaerobic or microaerophilic, acid-tolerant, non-spore-forming bacteria.

Contents

This species is a non-sporing, rod-shaped, gram positive microorganism that can be found within the reproductive and digestive tract of the human body. [2] Since L. casei can survive in a variety of environmental habitats, it has and continues to be extensively studied by health scientists. Commercially, L. casei is used in fermenting dairy products and its application as a probiotic. [3]

Shirota, a Lactobacillus casei strain. Lactobacilos Casei Shirota.jpg
Shirota, a Lactobacillus casei strain.

In bacteraemia, it is regarded to be similar in pathogenicity to Lactobacillus and associated with infective endocarditis. [4]

Taxonomy

The taxonomy of the L. casei group has been debated for several years because researchers struggled to differentiate between the strains of L. casei and L. paracasei using methods of traditional bacteriology, i.e. phenotypic, physiological, and biochemical similarities. In the 1990s, researchers began to realize that the type strain for L. casei, ATCC 393, does not quite match most other strains classified as "L. casei" by then. To solve this discrapency, Dellaglio et al. argued to simply replace the type with ATCC 334, which is closer to these "other strains", and to bury the name "L. paracasei". This argument was not accepted by the ICSP, which ruled in 1994 [5] and 2008 that the type strain should not be changed. ICSP also mentions that ATCC 334 is a strain of L. paracasei, meaning that it's the aforementioned "other strains" that need to be moved to paracasei. [6]

The next major event in taxonomic revision came with Zheng et al. 2020, which split Lactobacillus into several genera on phylogenomic grounds. L. casei was made the type species of Lacticaseibacillus , containing more than 20 species. [2]

As of December 2023, the accepted taxonomy under the species complex is as follows: [7] [8]

Uses

Dairy

The most common application of L. casei is industrial, specifically for dairy production.[ citation needed ]

Lacticaseibacillus casei is typically the dominant species of nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (i.e. contaminant bacteria [10] ) present in ripening cheddar cheese, and, recently, the complete genome sequence of L. casei ATCC 334 has become available.[ dubious – discuss ]L. casei is also the dominant species in naturally fermented Sicilian green olives. [11]

Medical

A commercial beverage containing L. casei strain Shirota has been shown to inhibit the in vivo growth of Helicobacter pylori , but when the same beverage was consumed by humans in a small trial, H. pylori colonization decreased only slightly, and the trend was not statistically significant. [12] Some L. casei strains are considered to be probiotic, and may be effective in alleviation of gastrointestinal pathogenic bacterial diseases. According to World Health Organization, those properties have to be demonstrated on each specific strain—including human clinical studies—to be valid. [13] L. casei has been combined with other probiotic strains of bacteria in randomized trials studying its effects in preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) and Clostridioides difficile infections (CDI), and patients in the trials who were not given the placebo had significantly lower rates of AAD or CDI (depending on the trial) with no adverse effects reported. [14] Additionally, trials have shown significantly shorter recovery times in children suffering from acute diarrhea (primarily caused by rotavirus) when given different L. casei treatments when compared to placebo. [15] Studies suggest that lactobacilli are a safe and effective treatment for acute and infectious diarrhea. [16]

In the preparation of food, L. casei bacteria can be used in the natural fermentation of beans to lower levels of the compounds causing flatulence upon digestion. [17]

Another strain that has been studied is "01", also known as "Lc-01" or Lacticaseibacillus casei-01. [18]

Commercial probiotic

Among the best-documented probiotic strains of L. casei, L. casei DN-114001 (Actimel/DanActive) and L. casei Shirota (Yakult) have been extensively studied [19] and are widely available as functional foods.

The genomes of these two strains have been sequenced from commercial yogurt, re-designated "LcA" and "LcY" respectively. They were found to be extremely closely related. [20]

Others

In the past few years, many studies have been conducted in the decolorization of azo dyes by lactic acid bacteria such as L. casei TISTR 1500, L. paracasei, Oenococcus oeni, etc. With the azoreductase activity, mono- and diazo bonds are degraded completely, and generate other aromatic compounds as intermediates. [21]

Characteristics of Lactocaseibacillus casei

The following table includes the colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of L. casei. [22] [23] [24]

Test typeTestCharacteristics
Colony characteristicsTypeSmooth
ColorOpaque without pigment
ShapeConvex
Morphological characteristicsArrangementShort chains
Size0.7-1.1 x 2.0-4.0 mm
ShapeRod
Gram stain+
Spores-
Physiological characteristicsMotility-
Growth on 4% NaCl+
Growth on 6.5% NaCl-
Biochemical characteristicsOxidase-
Catalase-
Glucose-
Lactose+
Sucrose+
Mannitol+
Starch+
Liquid hydrolysis+
Indole-
Methyl red-
Voges-Proskauer-
Citrate+
Nitrate reduction-
Urease-
Hydrolysis ofGalactose+
Casein+
Utilization ofGlycerol+
Galactose+
D-Glucose+
D-Fructose+
D-Mannose+
Mannitol+

Transformation

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is widely exploited for its probiotic and fermenting properties, so understanding how its genetic material is exchanged was crucial for researchers. A wide variety of comparative analyses were used to determine that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) influenced the evolution of the Lactobacillus genus. [25] HGT in L. casei includes transformation, conjugation, and transduction. The mobile genetic elements found within the genome, known as mobilomes, play an important role in Lactobacillaceae transfer. This includes insertion sequences, bacteriophages, integrons, plasmids, genomic islands, and transposons. [26] Within LAB, they are responsible for metabolizing different molecules, hydrolyzing proteins, resisting antibiotics, DNA, and phages, and modifying genetic elements. [27]

The first form of gene transfer used by Lactobacillus is transformation. This includes the uptake of naked DNA by a recipient bacterial cell to gain the genetic information of a donor cell. [28] This occurs after a donor bacterium has undergone autolysis and its DNA fragments are left within the free extracellular fluid. [29] The recipient bacterium will then ingest the DNA fragments and will result in either a bacterial cell with a plasmid or recombination of the recipient DNA will transpire within the chromosome.

The next form of transfer is conjugation, a process that involves the transfer of DNA from a Lactobacillus donor to a recipient via cell-to-cell contact or direct cytoplasmic contact. [30] In this process, the recipient cell is known as the transconjugant. [31] Once the cells come together, fragments of DNA are directly transferred from the donor to the transconjugant. This is mediated by pheromone-induced cell aggregation and mobilization proteins since many of the plasmids are unable to transfer on their own. [25] Afterward, the mating cells will separate and a recombinant cell will be produced after homologous recombination.[ citation needed ]

Finally, transduction in Lactobacillus cells is a bacteriophage-mediated transfer of plasmid or chromosomal genetic information. [32] To initiate this process, a bacteriophage must first infect the donor cell so that lysis of the cell will occur. At this point, the cell lysate will be filled with phages that carry donated genome fragments and the recipient cell will be injected with abnormal phage. This will result in a recombination cell whether the cell is infected after homologous recombination or after the infection occurs by bacteriophage integrase. [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Lactobacillus</i> Genus of bacteria

Lactobacillus is a genus of gram-positive, aerotolerant anaerobes or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria. Until 2020, the genus Lactobacillus comprised over 260 phylogenetically, ecologically, and metabolically diverse species; a taxonomic revision of the genus assigned lactobacilli to 25 genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus</span> Subspecies of bacteria, used in yogurt

Lactobacillus Bulgaricus is the main bacterium used for the production of yogurt. It also plays a crucial role in the ripening of some cheeses, as well as in other processes involving naturally fermented products. It is defined as homofermentive lactic acid bacteria due to lactic acid being the single end product of its carbohydrate digestion. It is also considered a probiotic.

<i>Lactococcus lactis</i> Species of bacterium

Lactococcus lactis is a gram-positive bacterium used extensively in the production of buttermilk and cheese, but has also become famous as the first genetically modified organism to be used alive for the treatment of human disease. L. lactis cells are cocci that group in pairs and short chains, and, depending on growth conditions, appear ovoid with a typical length of 0.5 - 1.5 μm. L. lactis does not produce spores (nonsporulating) and are not motile (nonmotile). They have a homofermentative metabolism, meaning they produce lactic acid from sugars. They've also been reported to produce exclusive L-(+)-lactic acid. However, reported D-(−)-lactic acid can be produced when cultured at low pH. The capability to produce lactic acid is one of the reasons why L. lactis is one of the most important microorganisms in the dairy industry. Based on its history in food fermentation, L. lactis has generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status, with few case reports of it being an opportunistic pathogen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Probiotic</span> Microorganisms said to provide health benefits when consumed

Probiotics are live microorganisms promoted with claims that they provide health benefits when consumed, generally by improving or restoring the gut microbiota. Probiotics are considered generally safe to consume, but may cause bacteria-host interactions and unwanted side effects in rare cases. There is some evidence that probiotics are beneficial for some conditions, such as helping to ease some symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). However, many claimed health benefits, such as treating eczema, lack substantial scientific support.

<i>Lactobacillus acidophilus</i> Species of bacterium

Lactobacillus acidophilus is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive, homofermentative, anaerobic microbe first isolated from infant feces in the year 1900. The species is commonly found in humans, specifically the gastrointestinal tract and oral cavity as well as some speciality fermented foods such as fermented milk or yogurt, though it is not the most common species for this. The species most readily grows at low pH levels, and has an optimum growth temperature of 37 °C. Certain strains of L. acidophilus show strong probiotic effects, and are commercially used in dairy production. The genome of L. acidophilus has been sequenced.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum is a widespread member of the genus Lactiplantibacillus and commonly found in many fermented food products as well as anaerobic plant matter. L. plantarum was first isolated from saliva. Based on its ability to temporarily persist in plants, the insect intestine and in the intestinal tract of vertebrate animals, it was designated as a nomadic organism. L. plantarum is Gram positive, bacilli shaped bacterium. L. plantarum cells are rods with rounded ends, straight, generally 0.9–1.2 μm wide and 3–8 μm long, occurring singly, in pairs or in short chains. L. plantarum has one of the largest genomes known among the lactic acid bacteria and is a very flexible and versatile species. It is estimated to grow between pH 3.4 and 8.8. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum can grow in the temperature range 12 °C to 40 °C. The viable counts of the "L. plantarum" stored at refrigerated condition (4 °C) remained high, while a considerable reduction in the counts was observed stored at room temperature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Minoru Shirota</span> Japanese microbiologist

Minoru Shirota was a Japanese microbiologist. In the 1930 Shirota identified a strain of lactic acid bacteria that is part of normal gut flora that he originally called Lactobacillus casei Shirota, which appeared to help contain the growth of harmful bacteria in the gut. The strain was later reclassified as Lactobacillus paracasei Shirota.

<i>Heyndrickxia coagulans</i> Species of bacterium

Heyndrickxia coagulans is a lactic acid–forming bacterial species. This species was transferred to Weizmannia in 2020, then to Heyndrickxia in 2023.

<i>Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus</i> Species of bacterium

Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus is a bacterium that originally was considered to be a subspecies of L. casei, but genetic research found it to be a separate species in the L. casei clade, which also includes L. paracasei and L. zeae. It is a short Gram-positive homofermentative facultative anaerobic non-spore-forming rod that often appears in chains. Some strains of L. rhamnosus bacteria are being used as probiotics, and are particularly useful in treating infections of the female urogenital tract, most particularly very difficult to treat cases of bacterial vaginosis. The species Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Limosilactobacillus reuteri are commonly found in the healthy female genito-urinary tract and are helpful to regain control of dysbiotic bacterial overgrowth during an active infection. L. rhamnosus sometimes is used in dairy products such as fermented milk and as non-starter-lactic acid bacterium (NSLAB) in long-ripened cheese. While frequently considered a beneficial organism, L. rhamnosus may not be as beneficial to certain subsets of the population; in rare circumstances, especially those primarily involving weakened immune system or infants, it may cause endocarditis. Despite the rare infections caused by L. rhamnosus, the species is included in the list of bacterial species with qualified presumed safety (QPS) status of the European Food Safety Agency.

<i>Bifidobacterium animalis</i> Species of bacterium

Bifidobacterium animalis is a gram-positive, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium of the Bifidobacterium genus which can be found in the large intestines of most mammals, including humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactic acid bacteria</span> Order of bacteria

Lactobacillales are an order of gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant, generally nonsporulating, nonrespiring, either rod-shaped (bacilli) or spherical (cocci) bacteria that share common metabolic and physiological characteristics. These bacteria, usually found in decomposing plants and milk products, produce lactic acid as the major metabolic end product of carbohydrate fermentation, giving them the common name lactic acid bacteria (LAB).

Limosilactobacillus reuteri is a lactic acid bacterium found in a variety of natural environments, including the gastrointestinal tract of humans and other animals. It does not appear to be pathogenic and may have health effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactobacillaceae</span> Family of bacteria

The Lactobacillaceae are a family of lactic acid bacteria. It is the only family in the lactic acid bacteria which includes homofermentative and heterofermentative organisms; in the Lactobacillaceae, the pathway used for hexose fermentation is a genus-specific trait. Lactobacillaceae include the homofermentative lactobacilli Lactobacillus, Holzapfelia, Amylolactobacillus, Bombilactobacillus, Companilactobacillus, Lapidilactobacillus, Agrilactobacillus, Schleiferilactobacillus, Loigolactobacillus, Lacticaseibacillus, Latilactobacillus, Dellaglioa, Liquorilactobacillus, Ligilactobacillus, and Lactiplantibacillus; the heterofermentative lactobacilli Furfurilactobacillus, Paucilactobacillus, Limosilactobacillus, Fructilactobacillus, Acetilactobacillus, Apilactobacillus, Levilactobacillus, Secundilactobacillus, and Lentilactobacillus, which were previously classified in the genus Lactobacillus; and the heterofermentative genera Convivina, Fructobacillus, Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, and Weissella which were previously classified in the Leuconostocaceae.

Levilactobacillus brevis is a gram-positive, rod shaped species of lactic acid bacteria which is heterofermentative, creating CO2, lactic acid and acetic acid or ethanol during fermentation. L. brevis is the type species of the genus Levilactobacillus (previously L. brevis group), which comprises 24 species. It can be found in many different environments, such as fermented foods, and as normal microbiota. L. brevis is found in food such as sauerkraut and pickles. It is also one of the most common causes of beer spoilage. Ingestion has been shown to improve human immune function, and it has been patented several times. Normal gut microbiota L. brevis is found in human intestines, vagina, and feces.

Limosilactobacillus fermentum is a Gram-positive species in the heterofermentative genus Limosilactobacillus. It is associated with active dental caries lesions. It is also commonly found in fermenting animal and plant material including sourdough and cocoa fermentation. A few strains are considered probiotic or "friendly" bacteria in animals and at least one strain has been applied to treat urogenital infections in women. Some strains of lactobacilli formerly mistakenly classified as L. fermentum have since been reclassified as Limosilactobacillus reuteri. Commercialized strains of L. fermentum used as probiotics include PCC, ME-3 and CECT5716

<i>Latilactobacillus sakei</i> Species of bacterium

Latilactobacillus sakei is the type species of the genus Latilactobacillus that was previously classified in the genus Lactobacillus. It is homofermentative; hexoses are metabolized via glycolysis to lactic acid as main metabolite; pentoses are fermented via the Phosphoketolase pathway to lactic and acetic acids.

<i>Lacticaseibacillus paracasei</i> Species of bacterium

Lacticaseibacillus paracasei (commonly abbreviated as Lc. paracasei) is a gram-positive, homofermentative species of lactic acid bacteria that are commonly used in dairy product fermentation and as probiotic cultures. Lc. paracasei is a bacterium that operates by commensalism. It is commonly found in many human habitats such as human intestinal tracts and mouths as well as sewages, silages, and previously mentioned dairy products. The name includes morphology, a rod-shaped bacterium with a width of 2.0 to 4.0μm and length of 0.8 to 1.0μm.

Lactobacillus crispatus is a common, rod-shaped species of genus Lactobacillus and is a lactic acid producing bacterial species located in both the vagina, through vaginal discharge, and the vertebrate gastrointestinal tract. This species commonly found in vaginal microbiome and is thought to be beneficial to health.

<i>Lactobacillus bulgaricus</i> GLB44 Subspecies of bacterium

Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is a bacterial subspecies traditionally isolated from European yogurts. Lactobacillus bulgaricusGLB44 differs from other L. bulgaricus strains, because it was isolated from the leaves of Galanthus nivalis in Bulgaria.

Lacticaseibacillus is a genus of lactic acid bacteria.

References

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  2. 1 2 Zheng, Jinshui; Wittouck, Stijn; Salvetti, Elisa; Franz, Charles M.A.P.; Harris, Hugh M.B.; Mattarelli, Paola; O'Toole, Paul W.; Pot, Bruno; Vandamme, Peter; Walter, Jens; Watanabe, Koichi (2020). "A taxonomic note on the genus Lactobacillus: Description of 23 novel genera, emended description of the genus Lactobacillus Beijerinck 1901, and union of Lactobacillaceae and Leuconostocaceae". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (4): 2782–2858. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.004107 . hdl: 10067/1738330151162165141 . ISSN   1466-5034. PMID   32293557. S2CID   215771564.
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  4. ↑ Campagne J, Guichard JF, Moulhade MC, Kawski H, Maurier F (May 2017). "Lactobacillus endocarditis: a case report in France and literature review". IDCases. 21: e00811. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2020.e00811. PMC   7248674 . PMID   32477869.
  5. ↑ Wayne, L. G. (1 January 1994). "Actions of the Judicial Commission of the International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology on Requests for Opinions Published Between January 1985 and July 1993". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 44 (1): 177–178. doi: 10.1099/00207713-44-1-177 .
  6. ↑ Judicial Commission of the International Committee on Systematics of, Bacteria (July 2008). "The type strain of Lactobacillus casei is ATCC 393, ATCC 334 cannot serve as the type because it represents a different taxon, the name Lactobacillus paracasei and its subspecies names are not rejected and the revival of the name 'Lactobacillus zeae' contravenes Rules 51b (1) and (2) of the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. Opinion 82". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 58 (Pt 7): 1764–5. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.2008/005330-0 . PMID   18599731.
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  11. ↑ Randazzo CL, Restuccia C, Romano AD, Caggia C (January 2004). "Lactobacillus casei, dominant species in naturally fermented Sicilian green olives". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 90 (1): 9–14. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00159-4. PMID   14672826.
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  13. ↑ "Joint FAO/WHO Working Group Report on Drafting Guidelines for the Evaluation of Probiotics in Food" (PDF). London, Ontario, Canada. April 30 – May 1, 2002.
  14. ↑ McFarland, LV (2009). "Evidence-based review of probiotics for antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile infections" (PDF). Anaerobe. 15 (6): 274–80. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2009.09.002. PMID   19825425. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-10. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
  15. ↑ Isolauri, Erika; et al. (1991). "A Human Lactobacillus Strain (Lactobacillus casei sp strain GG) Promotes Recovery From Acute Diarrhea in Children". Pediatrics. 88 (1): 90–97. PMID   1905394 . Retrieved 2012-04-15.
  16. ↑ Van Niel, C. W.; Feudtner, C.; Garrison, M. M.; Christakis, D. A. (2002). "Lactobacillus Therapy for Acute Infectious Diarrhea in Children: A Meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 109 (4): 678–684. doi:10.1542/peds.109.4.678. PMID   11927715. Archived from the original on 2012-09-13.
  17. ↑ Marisela Granito; Glenda Álvarez (June 2006). "Lactic acid fermentation of black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris): Microbiological and chemical characterization". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 86 (8): 1164–1171. Bibcode:2006JSFA...86.1164G. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2490.
  18. ↑ Pimentel, Tatiana Colombo; Brandão, Larissa Ramalho; de Oliveira, Matthaws Pereira; da Costa, Whyara Karoline Almeida; Magnani, Marciane (2021-08-01). "Health benefits and technological effects of Lacticaseibacillus casei-01: An overview of the scientific literature". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 114: 722–737. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2021.06.030. ISSN   0924-2244. S2CID   237725610.
  19. ↑ Kazuyoshi Takeda; Ko Okumura (2007). "Effects of a Fermented Milk Drink Containing Lactobacillus casei Strain Shirota on the Human NK-Cell Activity". The Journal of Nutrition. 137 (3): 791S–793S. doi: 10.1093/jn/137.3.791S . PMID   17311976.
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  21. ↑ Seesuriyachan P, Takenaka S, Kuntiya A, Klayraung S, Murakami S, Aoki K (March 2007). "Metabolism of azo dyes by Lactobacillus casei TISTR 1500 and effects of various factors on decolorization" (PDF). Water Res. 41 (5): 985–92. Bibcode:2007WatRe..41..985S. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.12.001. PMID   17254626.
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  26. ↑ Siefert, Janet (2009-02-01). "Defining the Mobilome". Horizontal Gene Transfer. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 532. pp. 13–27. doi:10.1007/978-1-60327-853-9_2. ISBN   978-1-60327-852-2. PMID   19271177.
  27. ↑ Ghosh, Samrat; Sarangi, Aditya Narayan; Mukherjee, Mayuri; Bhowmick, Swati; Tripathy, Sucheta (2019-10-25). "Reanalysis of Lactobacillus paracasei Lbs2 Strain and Large-Scale Comparative Genomics Places Many Strains into Their Correct Taxonomic Position". Microorganisms. 7 (11): 487. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7110487 . ISSN   2076-2607. PMC   6920896 . PMID   31731444.
  28. ↑ Hasegawa, Haruka; Suzuki, Erika; Maeda, Sumio (2018). "Horizontal Plasmid Transfer by Transformation in Escherichia coli: Environmental Factors and Possible Mechanisms". Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 2365. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02365 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   6180151 . PMID   30337917.
  29. ↑ Wei, Ming-Qian; Rush, Catherine M.; Norman, Julianne M.; Hafner, Louise M.; Epping, Ronald J.; Timms, Peter (1995-01-01). "An improved method for the transformation of Lactobacillus strains using electroporation". Journal of Microbiological Methods. 21 (1): 97–109. doi:10.1016/0167-7012(94)00038-9. ISSN   0167-7012.
  30. ↑ Willetts, N; Wilkins, B (March 1984). "Processing of plasmid DNA during bacterial conjugation". Microbiological Reviews. 48 (1): 24–41. doi:10.1128/mr.48.1.24-41.1984. ISSN   0146-0749. PMC   373001 . PMID   6201705.
  31. ↑ Carranza, Gerardo; Menguiano, Tamara; Valenzuela-Gómez, Fernando; García-Cazorla, Yolanda; Cabezón, Elena; Arechaga, Ignacio (2021). "Monitoring Bacterial Conjugation by Optical Microscopy". Frontiers in Microbiology. 12: 750200. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.750200 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   8521088 . PMID   34671336.
  32. ↑ Chiang, Yin Ning; Penadés, José R.; Chen, John (2019-08-08). "Genetic transduction by phages and chromosomal islands: The new and noncanonical". PLOS Pathogens. 15 (8): e1007878. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007878 . ISSN   1553-7366. PMC   6687093 . PMID   31393945.
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