Nuclear torpedo

Last updated

A nuclear torpedo is a torpedo armed with a nuclear warhead. The idea behind the nuclear warheads in a torpedo was to create a much bigger explosive blast. Later analysis suggested that smaller, more accurate, and faster torpedoes were more efficient and effective. [1]

Contents

During the Cold War, nuclear torpedoes replaced some conventionally armed torpedoes on submarines of both the Soviet and American navies.

The USSR developed the T15, the T5 and the ASB-30. The only nuclear warhead torpedo used by the United States was the Mark 45 torpedo. [2] The Soviet Union widely deployed T5 nuclear torpedoes in 1958 and the U.S. deployed its Mark 45 torpedo in 1963. [3] :28 In 2015, there were rumors that Russia was developing a new nuclear torpedo, the Status-6.

Soviet Union

T-15

The Soviet Union's development of nuclear weapons began in the late 1940s. The Navy had put itself forward as the most suitable branch of the Soviet armed forces to deliver a nuclear strike, believing its submarine technology and tactics to be superior to the rest of the world. In theory, long-range submarines that can surface just prior to launching a nuclear weapon offer a large tactical advantage in comparison to deploying weapons by long range bomber planes that can be shot down.

In the early 1950s, the Soviet Ministry of Medium Machine Building secretly initiated plans for incorporating nuclear warheads into submarine warfare. One concept, the T-15 project, aimed to provide a nuclear warhead with a diameter of 1,550 mm (61 in), which was completely incompatible with the traditional caliber torpedo already used in Soviet diesel-powered submarines. The T-15 project began in strict secrecy in 1951. Research and testing was contemporaneous with the other concept, the much smaller and lighter 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo referred to as the T-5. Stalin and the armed forces saw benefits to both calibers of torpedo: the T-5 was a superior tactical option, but the T-15 had a larger blast. Meetings at the Kremlin were so highly classified that the Navy was not informed. The plans for the T-15 torpedo and for an appropriately redesigned submarine, named project 627, were authorized on September 12, 1952, but were not officially approved until 1953, surprising the Navy, which had been unaware of the central government activity. [4] :239–240 The T-15 project developed a torpedo that could travel 16 miles (26 km) with a thermonuclear warhead. The 1550 mm T-15 design was 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter and weighed 36,000 kg (40 short tons). The large size of the weapon limited the capacity of a modified submarine to a single torpedo that could only travel at a speed of 56 km/h (30 kn). The torpedo speed was hindered by the usage of an electric propelled motor to launch the warhead. [3]

Discontinuation

The T-15 was intended to destroy naval bases and coastal towns by an underwater explosion that resulted in massive tsunami waves. The front compartment of the T-15 submarines held the massive torpedo, which occupied 22% of the length of the submarine. A submarine could only hold one T-15 at a time, but it was also equipped with two 533-mm torpedo tubes intended for self-defense. In 1953, the T-15 project presented its conclusions to the Central Council of the Communist Party, where it was determined that the project would be managed by the Navy. In 1954, a committee of naval experts disagreed with continuing the T-15 nuclear torpedoes. Their criticisms centered on a lack of need when considered along with existing weapons in the submarine fleet, as well as skepticism that submarines would be able to approach launch points close enough to the coastline to hit targets within 40 km (25 mi). [5]

Project 627 was modified to provide reactors for a new vessel that would be capable of deploying 533 mm caliber torpedoes in the T-5 project. However, the termination of the T-15 program in 1954 was not the last time a large torpedo would be considered as means of deployment. In 1961, Andrei Sakharov revisited the idea after the successful testing of his new 52 megaton bomb, which was too large for aircraft. When he introduced the concept to the navy they did not welcome the idea, being turned off by the wide area effect which would kill so many innocent people. Technological advances led to the weapon selection process favoring more tactical approaches that were amenable to quicker execution. [6] After years of decline and reduction of stockpiles the Russian Federation in recent years seems to tend to lean toward an increase of its stockpile in terms of quantity and yield of nuclear weapons. [7]

T-5

From the early 1950s, when the Soviets succeeded in engineering atomic bombs of their own, an effective means of delivery was sought. [8] The T-5 torpedo carried an RDS-9 nuclear warhead with a yield of 5 kilotons. The first test of this warhead on the Semipalatinsk nuclear proving ground in Kazakhstan on 10 October 1954 was unsuccessful. [9] A year later, after further development, a test on Novaya Zemlya on 21 September 1955 succeeded. [3] On 10 October 1957, in another test on Novaya Zemlya, the Whiskey class submarine S-144 launched a live T-5 nuclear torpedo. The test weapon, code named Korall, detonated with a yield of 4.8 kilotons 20 m (66 ft) under the surface of the bay, sending a huge plume of highly radioactive water high into the air. [10] Three decommissioned submarines were used as targets at a distance of 10.5 km (6.5 mi). [3] Both S-20 and S-34 sank while S-19 received critical damage.

In 1958, the T-5 became fully operational as the Type 53-58 torpedo. [3] :28 The weapon, which could be deployed on most Soviet submarines, [3] had an interchangeable warhead for either nuclear or high explosive. This permitted quick tactical decisions on deployment. The T-5, like the US Mark 45 torpedo, was not designed to make direct hits but to maximize a blast kill zone in the water. The detonation would create shock waves powerful enough to crack the hull of a submerged submarine. However, like the U.S. Mark 45 torpedo, the T-5 was not optimized for deep diving and had limited guidance capability. As its thermal operational range was between 5 and 25 °C (41 and 77 °F), this decreased its effectiveness in the waters of the North Atlantic and Arctic. [5]

On 27 October 1962, at the height of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviet submarine B-59 was pursued in the Atlantic Ocean by the U.S. Navy. When the Soviet vessel failed to surface, American destroyers began dropping training depth charges. The B-59 was armed with a T-5. The Soviet captain, believing that World War III was under way wished to launch the nuclear weapon. However, his flotilla commander, Vasili Arkhipov, who by happenstance was using the boat as his command vessel, refused to endorse the command. After an argument, it was agreed that the submarine would surface and await orders from Moscow. It was not until after the fall of the Soviet Union that it was made known that the submarine was armed with a T-5. [11] A fictional Soviet nuclear torpedo was deployed in the 1965 Cold War film The Bedford Incident . [12] [13]

ASB-30

The ASB-30 was a nuclear warhead, deployed by the Soviet Navy in 1962, which could replace high-explosive warheads on 533 mm (21-inch) torpedoes while the submarine was at sea. [3] :28

VA-111 Shkval

The supercavitating VA-111 Shkval torpedo is allegedly able to carry nuclear warheads. [14]

Russian Federation

Status-6

In 2015, information emerged that Russia may be developing a new up to 100  MT [15] thermonuclear torpedo, the Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System, [16] [17] [18] codenamed "Kanyon" by Pentagon officials. [19] [20] [21] This weapon is designed to create a tsunami wave up to 500 m (1,600 ft) tall that will radioactively contaminate a wide area on an enemy coasts with cobalt-60, and to be immune to anti-missile defense systems such as anti-ballistic missiles, laser weapons and railguns that might disable an ICBM or a SLBM. [17] [18] [21] [22] [23] Two potential carrier submarines, the Project 09852 Oscar-class submarine Belgorod , and the Project 09851 Yasen-class submarine Khabarovsk , are new boats laid down in 2012 and 2014 respectively. [20] [21] [24] Status 6 appears to be a deterrent weapon of last resort. [23] [24] It appears to be a torpedo-shaped robotic mini-submarine, that can travel at speeds of 190 km/h (100 kn). [23] [24] [7] More recent information suggests a top speed of 104 km/h (56 kn), with a range of 10,000 km (6,200 mi) and a depth maximum of 1,000 m (3,300 ft). [25] This underwater drone is cloaked by stealth technology to elude acoustic tracking devices. [17] [24] However many commentators doubt that this is a real project, and see it as more likely to be a staged leak to intimidate the US. Amongst other comments on it, Edward Moore Geist wrote a paper in which he says that "Russian decision makers would have little confidence that these areas would be in the intended locations" [26] and Russian military experts are cited as saying that "Robotic torpedo shown could have other purposes, such as delivering deep-sea equipment or installing surveillance devices". [27]

In January 2018 the Pentagon confirmed the existence of Status-6. [28] [29]

United States

Rationale

U.S. interest in a nuclear torpedo can be traced to 1943, when Captain William S. Parsons, head of the ordnance division of the Manhattan Project, proposed an air-launched uranium-type nuclear warhead torpedo. [3] This concept never advanced. It was not until the late 1950s, when deep-diving, fast Soviet nuclear submarines appeared, that heavier weaponry was needed. In 1960, the United States revealed its development of nuclear warheads that could be dropped from the delta-winged Convair B-58 Hustler, the first operational supersonic bomber, over target points detected by sonar systems. [30]

Mark 45

The Mark 45 torpedo, also known as ASTOR, was a United States Navy (USN) nuclear weapon. The Mark 45 replaced the Mark 44 torpedo, which was appreciably smaller, weighing about 193 kg (425 lb) and 250 cm (100 in) in length. [2] The Mark 44 range was around 5,500 m (6,000 yd) and it could reach speeds of 56 km/h (30 kn). [31] The initial design was undertaken in 1959 or 1960 by the Applied Research Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash., and the Westinghouse Electric Corp., Baltimore, Md. [31] The torpedo entered service in 1963.

The Mark 45 was a submarine-launched, antisubmarine, antisurface ship torpedo with wire guidance capabilities. [1] The warhead was a W34 low-yield tactical nuclear warhead, whose extensive blast radius would destroy an enemy boat by a proximity detonation, rather than precision delivery. To ensure full control was maintained over the nuclear weapon, a wire control carried out the detonation. [2] The warhead was detonated only by a signal sent along the wire; there was no contact or influence exploder in the torpedo. Target guidance signals, informed by a gyro and depth gear, could also be sent via the wire connection, as the torpedo had no onboard homing ability. [32] :71 [2] It was 480 mm (19 in) in diameter, and was launched silently from a standard 530 mm (21 in) tube by allowing it to swim out. It was 580 cm (227 in) and weighed 1,000 to 1,100 kg (2,300 to 2,400 lb). [31] There were 2 mods of the Mark 45. The first one, mod 0, was the original nuclear armed version. Mod 1 was a conventionally armed version, refitted from retired mod 0 versions and offered for sale to allied navies as the Mk45 Mod 1 Freedom torpedo. [31] The nuclear warhead offered a large explosion that could destroy high speed, deep diving submarines. Powered by a seawater battery and a 160 ehp electric motor, [2] it could reach 74 km/h (40 kn) and had a maximum range of 14,000 m (15,000 yd). Approximately 600 Mark 45 torpedoes were built from 1963 to 1976.

Replacement

The size and weight of the Mark 45's nuclear warhead greatly interfered with the speed the torpedo could reach. From 1972 to 1976, the Mark 45 was replaced by the Mark 48 torpedo, the current USN submarine torpedo. [33] :161 The Mark 48 is a very fast, deep-diving, acoustic-homing torpedo with a high performance guidance system. [2] [31] The Mark 48 is 530 mm (21 in) in diameter, has a length of just over 5.8 m (19 ft), and carries a warhead of approximately 290 kg (650 lb) of high explosives. The weapon is estimated to have a speed of 102 km/h (55 kn) and a range of 32,000 m (35,000 yd). A guidance wire spools out simultaneously from the submarine and the torpedo, enabling the submarine to control the "fish" using the larger and more powerful passive sonar of the submarine. The torpedo's gyro places it on an initial bearing to the target. The wire only comes into play if the target's position and movement suggest a change is needed to correct the torpedo's gyro course. In such case, the fire control technician makes the alteration through the wire. The wire is then cut and the torpedo's active homing sonar seeks out the target. Subsequent advances to the Mark 48 include the Mark 48 Mod 3, with advances to the homing system, using TELECOM, which provides two-way data transmissions between the submarine and the torpedo, enabling the torpedo to transmit acoustic data back to the submarine. Over 5,000 Mark 48 torpedoes have been produced. [33] :161 [3] :203–204

The decommissioned Mark 45 torpedoes were refashioned, replacing the nuclear warheads with conventional warheads. These "Freedom" torpedoes were offered for foreign sale without much success. [32] :72 [34]

WeaponTypeRange (yards)Speed (knots)Warhead
Mk 37torpedo8,000–18,000various330 lb HBX-3
Mk 45torpedo30,000–40,000variousnuclear capable
Mk 48torpedo30,000–40,000various800 lb HBX-3
Mk 48 ADCAPtorpedo30,000–40,000various800 lb HBX-3
Subroc UUM-44rocket30 nmN/Anuclear capable
UGM 84a/canti-ship missile75 nm600488 lb WDU18

Cuban Missile Crisis

At the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the U.S. was unaware that the U.S.S.R. possessed nuclear-armed-torpedoes. [35] Before the crisis, the U.S. had been stalking and documenting most Soviet submarines. [35] During the crisis, the U.S. imposed a blockade to eradicate all Soviet presence in the Caribbean Sea. A dangerous incident may have occurred on Soviet submarine B-59, [36] although some doubts have been raised. Vadim Orlov, who was a communications intelligence officer, stated that on 27 October, U.S. destroyers lobbed practice depth charges at B-59. Captain Valentin Savitsky, unable to establish communications with Moscow, with a crew suffering from heat and high levels of carbon dioxide, ordered the T5 nuclear torpedo to be assembled for firing. The Deputy Brigade Commander Second Captain Vasili Arkhipov calmed Savitsky down and they made the decision to surface the submarine. [11] This narrative is controversial, as other submarine commanders have found it improbable that Savitsky would have given such an order. [35]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">RUR-5 ASROC</span> Anti-submarine missile system

The RUR-5 ASROC is an all-weather, all sea-conditions anti-submarine missile system. Developed by the United States Navy in the 1950s, it was deployed in the 1960s, updated in the 1990s, and eventually installed on over 200 USN surface ships, specifically cruisers, destroyers, and frigates. The ASROC has been deployed on scores of warships of many other navies, including Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, Greece, Pakistan and others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cruise missile</span> Guided missile with precision targeting capabilities and multiple launch platforms

A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at high subsonic, supersonic, or hypersonic speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.

Russian submarine <i>Kursk</i> (K-141) Oscar-II class cruise missile submarine

K-141 Kursk was an Oscar II-class nuclear-powered cruise missile submarine of the Russian Navy. On 12 August 2000, K-141 Kursk was lost when it sank in the Barents Sea, killing all 118 personnel on board.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Torpedo</span> Self-propelled underwater weapon

A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target. Historically, such a device was called an automotive, automobile, locomotive, or fish torpedo; colloquially a fish. The term torpedo originally applied to a variety of devices, most of which would today be called mines. From about 1900, torpedo has been used strictly to designate a self-propelled underwater explosive device.

The Mark 24 Tigerfish was a heavyweight acoustic homing torpedo used by the Royal Navy (RN) during the 1980s and 90s. Conceptual development dates to the mid-1950s, and formally started in 1959 with a target introduction date in 1969. A lengthy development process led to a greatly reduced performance requirement, including the removal of anti-surface capabilities. The first prototype "Tiger Fish" examples were delivered in 1967.

Yankee-class submarine Soviet ballistic missile submarine class

The Yankee class, Soviet designations Project 667A Navaga (navaga) and Project 667AU Nalim (burbot) for the basic Yankee-I, were a family of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines built in the Soviet Union for the Soviet Navy. In total, 34 units were built: 24 in Severodvinsk for the Northern Fleet and the remaining 10 in Komsomolsk-on-Amur for the Pacific Fleet. Two Northern Fleet units were later transferred to the Pacific.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type 93 torpedo</span> WW2 24-inch torpedo of the Imperial Japanese Navy

The Type 93 was a 610 mm (24 in)-diameter torpedo of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), launched from surface ships. It is commonly referred to as the Long Lance by most modern English-language naval historians, a nickname given to it after the war by Samuel Eliot Morison, the chief historian of the U.S. Navy, who spent much of the war in the Pacific Theater. In Japanese references, the term Sanso gyorai is also used, in reference to its propulsion system. It was the most advanced naval torpedo in the world at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mark 46 torpedo</span> Lightweight antisubmarine torpedo

The Mark 46 torpedo is the backbone of the United States Navy's lightweight anti-submarine warfare torpedo inventory and is the NATO standard. These aerial torpedoes are designed to attack high-performance submarines. In 1989, an improvement program for the Mod 5 to the Mod 5A and Mod 5A(S) increased its shallow-water performance. The Mark 46 was initially developed as Research Torpedo Concept I, one of several weapons recommended for implementation by Project Nobska, a 1956 summer study on submarine warfare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type 53 torpedo</span> Family of Russian weapon systems

Type 53 is the common name for a family of 53 cm torpedoes manufactured in Russia, starting with the 53-27 torpedo and continuing to the modern UGST (Fizik-1), which is being replaced by the Futlyar.

The Type 65 is a torpedo manufactured in the Soviet Union and then Russia. It was developed for use against US Navy aircraft carrier battle groups, as well as large merchant targets such as supertankers and advanced enemy submarines. It is now typically fitted to newer Russian vessels, though often the 650 mm torpedo tube is fitted with a 533 mm converter to enable firing of SS-N-15 missiles or Type 53 torpedoes.

USS <i>Bluefish</i> (SSN-675) Submarine of the United States

USS Bluefish (SSN-675), a Sturgeon-class attack submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the bluefish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">VA-111 Shkval</span> Supercavitating torpedo

The VA-111 Shkval torpedo and its descendants are supercavitating torpedoes originally developed by the Soviet Union. They are capable of speeds in excess of 200 knots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sting Ray (torpedo)</span> British, acoustic homing, light-weight

The Sting Ray is a British acoustic homing lightweight torpedo (LWT) manufactured by GEC-Marconi, who were later bought out by BAE Systems. It entered service in 1983.

The Poseidon, previously known by Russian codename Status-6, is an autonomous, nuclear-powered unmanned underwater vehicle reportedly in production by Rubin Design Bureau, capable of delivering both conventional and nuclear warheads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mark 45 torpedo</span> Nuclear antisubmarine torpedo

The Mark 45 anti-submarine torpedo, a.k.a. ASTOR, was a submarine-launched wire-guided nuclear torpedo designed by the United States Navy for use against high-speed, deep-diving, enemy submarines. This was one of several weapons recommended for implementation by Project Nobska, a 1956 summer study on submarine warfare. The 19-inch (480 mm)-diameter torpedo was fitted with a W34 nuclear warhead. The need to maintain direct control over the warhead meant that a wire connection had to be maintained between the torpedo and submarine until detonation. Wire guidance systems were piggybacked onto this cable, and the torpedo had no homing capability. The design was completed in 1960, and 600 torpedoes were built between 1963 and 1976, when ASTOR was replaced by the Mark 48 torpedo.

The People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) is the naval branch of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the armed forces of the People's Republic of China. The PLAN force consists of approximately 250,000 men and over a hundred major combat vessels, organized into three fleets: the North Sea Fleet, the East Sea Fleet, and the South Sea Fleet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">RK-55</span> Russian surface and submarine-launched nuclear cruise missile

The Novator RK-55 Relief is a Russian Navy cruise missile that is launched either from submarines (SLCM) or from surface ships. It can have a nuclear warhead developed in the Soviet Union. A version launched from submarine torpedo tubes, the S-10 Granat, has apparently been converted to carry conventional warheads and continues in service to this day. The Russian Federation was reported to have deployed the derivative SS-CX-7/SS-CX-8 systems on 14 February 2017. The land launched version is called the Novator 9M729.

There have been a number of 21-inch (53.3cm) torpedoes in service with the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom.

Soviet submarine <i>B-59</i> Submarine whose onboard situation could have started World War III

Soviet submarine B-59 was a Project 641 or Foxtrot-class diesel-electric submarine of the Soviet Navy. B-59 was stationed near Cuba during the 13-day Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 and was pursued and harassed by US Navy vessels. Senior officers in the submarine, out of contact with Moscow and the rest of the world and believing they were under attack and possibly at war, came close to firing a T-5 nuclear torpedo at the US ships.

Project Nobska was a 1956 summer study on anti-submarine warfare (ASW) for the United States Navy ordered by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke. It is also referred to as the Nobska Study, named for its location on Nobska Point near the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. The focus was on the ASW implications of nuclear submarines, particularly on new technologies to defend against them. The study was coordinated by the Committee on Undersea Warfare (CUW) of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). It was notable for including 73 representatives from numerous organizations involved in submarine design, submarine-related fields, and weapons design, including senior scientists from the Atomic Energy Commission's nuclear weapons laboratories. Among the participants were Nobel laureate Isidor Rabi, Paul Nitze, and Edward Teller. The study's recommendations influenced all subsequent US Navy submarine designs, as well as submarine-launched ASW tactical nuclear weapons until this weapon type was phased out in the late 1980s. New lightweight and heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo programs were approved. Although not on the initial agenda, the Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) was determined to be capable of implementation at this conference. Within five years Polaris would dramatically improve the US Navy's strategic nuclear deterrent capability.

References

  1. 1 2 Branfill-Cook R. Torpedo: The Complete History of the World's Most Revolutionary Naval Weapon. Publisher: Naval Institute Press (August 15, 2014) ISBN   9781591141938
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "USA Torpedoes since World War II." USA Torpedoes since World War II. N.p., 28 Dec. 2013. Web. 07 Apr. 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Polmar N, Moore KJ. (2004). Cold War submarines: The design and construction of U.S. and Soviet submarines. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books.
  4. Podvig PL, Bukharin O. Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Chapter 5: Naval Strategic Nuclear Forces. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2001.
  5. 1 2 "Russian Nuclear Torpedoes T-15 and T-5." Survincity. Encyclopedia of Safety, 11 Oct. 2012. Web. 7 Apr. 2016. Archived 2021-05-12 at the Wayback Machine
  6. Pike J. "Weapons of Mass Destruction" T-15 Nuclear Torpedo. Global Security, 14 Feb. 2016. Web. 5 Apr. 2016. <http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/t-15.htm>.
  7. 1 2 "Trump questions the US's nuclear arsenal: Here's how the US's nukes compare to Russia's". 23 December 2016. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  8. Volpi AD, Minkov VE, Simonenko VA, Stanford GS. (2004). Nuclear shadowboxing: Cold War Redux. Kalamazoo, MI: Fidlar Doubleday.
  9. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/t-15.html
  10. Arkhipov V. (n/a, September 29). The Man Who Saved The World. Retrieved April 10, 2016, from http://www.sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=News%5B%5D
  11. 1 2 Noam Chomsky (2004). Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance. New York: Henry Holt. p. 74. ISBN   0-8050-7688-3.
  12. "The Bedford Incident | review, synopsis, book tickets, showtimes ." timeout.com. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
  13. Clark, Graeme. "Bedford Incident, The Review (1965)". thespinningimage.co.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
  14. "VA-111 Shkval". www.globalsecurity.org.
  15. "'Secret' Russian nuclear torpedo blueprint leaked". Fox News . 12 November 2015.
  16. John Pike. "Status-6 Ocean Multipurpose System".
  17. 1 2 3 Why A Russian Super-Radioactive Atomic Torpedo Isn't The News You Think It Is
  18. 1 2 "Russia reveals giant nuclear torpedo in state TV 'leak'". BBC News. November 12, 2015.
  19. Trakimavičius, Lukas. "The Future Role of Nuclear Propulsion in the Military" (PDF). NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-10-18. Retrieved 2021-10-15.
  20. 1 2 Gady, Franz-Stefan. "Revealed: Russia's Top Secret Nuclear Torpedo". thediplomat.com.
  21. 1 2 3 Russian Mystery Submarine Likely Deployment Vehicle for New Nuclear Torpedo. USNI News.
  22. What Is The Purpose Of Russia's Deadly Status-6 Torpedo
  23. 1 2 3 Steven Pifer S. Russia's perhaps-not-real super torpedo. Brookings Institution. November 18, 2015
  24. 1 2 3 4 Oliphant R. Secret Russian radioactive doomsday torpedo leaked on television. Telegraph. 13 Nov 2015
  25. "Pentagon Confirms Russia's Thermonuclear Submarine Bomb is Real". 8 December 2016.
  26. Moore Geist Edward (2016). "Would Russia's undersea "doomsday drone" carry a cobalt bomb?". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 72 (4): 238–242. Bibcode:2016BuAtS..72d.238G. doi:10.1080/00963402.2016.1195199. S2CID   147795467.
  27. "Russia reveals giant nuclear torpedo in state TV 'leak'". BBC News. November 12, 2015.
  28. "Russia has underwater nuclear drones, newly leaked Pentagon documents reveal". Newsweek . 14 January 2018.
  29. "Russia's Status-6: The Ultimate Nuclear Weapon or an Old Idea That Won't Die?". 20 January 2018.
  30. Curley R. War At Sea and in the Air. New York: Britannica Educational Pub. in Association with Rosen Educational Services, 2012. p 141.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 A Brief History of U.S. Navy Torpedo Development - Part 2." A Brief History of U.S. Navy Torpedo Development - Part 2. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Apr. 2016.
  32. 1 2 Friedman N. U.S. Naval Weapons: Every Gun, Missile, Mine, and Torpedo Used by the U.S. Navy from 1883 to the Present Day. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1982.
  33. 1 2 Monroe-Jones E, Roderick SS. Submarine Torpedo Tactics: An American History. Jefferson: McFarland, 2014.
  34. Owen D. Anti-Submarine Warfare: An Illustrated History. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2007. 201.
  35. 1 2 3 William Burr; Thomas S. Blanton, eds. (October 31, 2002). "National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 75: The Submarines of October". National Security Archive . Retrieved June 19, 2017.
  36. Wilson, Edward (October 27, 2012). "Thank you Vasili Arkhipov, the man who stopped nuclear war". The Guardian . Retrieved June 19, 2017.