The US-Israeli Tactical High Energy Laser (THEL) was used to shoot down rockets and artillery shells before being canceled in 2005 as a result of "its bulkiness, high costs and poor anticipated results on the battlefield".
A laser weapon[2] is a type of directed-energy weapon that uses lasers to inflict damage. Whether they will be deployed as practical, high-performance military weapons remains to be seen.[3][4] One of the major issues with laser weapons is atmospheric thermal blooming, which is still largely unsolved. This issue is exacerbated when there is fog, smoke, dust, rain, snow, smog, foam, or purposely dispersed obscurant chemicals present. In essence, a laser generates a beam of light that requires clear air or a vacuum to operate.[5]
The YAL-1, a modified Boeing 747, owned by USAF. It was canceled in December 2011 and scrapped in September 2014.YAL-1 live test
Many types of laser have been identified as having the potential to be used as incapacitating non-lethal weapons. They can cause temporary or permanent vision loss when directed at the eyes. The extent, nature, and duration of visual impairment resulting from exposure to laser light depend on various factors, such as the laser's power, wavelength(s), collimation of the beam, orientation of the beam, and duration of exposure. Even lasers with a power output of less than one watt can cause immediate and permanent vision loss under certain conditions, making them potentially non-lethal but incapacitating weapons. However, the use of such lasers is morally controversial due to the extreme handicap that laser-induced blindness represents. The Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons bans the use of weapons designed to cause permanent blindness. Weapons designed to cause temporary blindness, known as dazzlers, are used by military and sometimes law enforcement organizations. Incidents of pilots being exposed to lasers while flying have prompted aviation authorities to implement special procedures to deal with such hazards.[6]
Laser weapons capable of directly damaging or destroying a target in combat are still in the experimental stage. The general idea of laser-beam weaponry is to hit a target with a train of brief pulses of light. The United States Navy has tested the very short-range (1 mile), 30-kWLaser Weapon System or LaWS to be used against targets like small UAVs, rocket-propelled grenades, and visible motorboat or helicopter engines.[7][8] It has been described as "six welding lasers strapped together." A 60kW system, HELIOS, is being developed for destroyer-class ships as of 2020[update].[9]
Laser-based missile and air defense systems
Laser-based directed-energy weapons have been under development for defense purposes, particularly for the destruction of incoming missiles. One such example is the Boeing Airborne Laser, constructed inside a Boeing 747 and designated as the YAL-1. This system was designed to eliminate short- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their boost phase.[10] It was canceled in 2012.
Another laser-based defense system was researched for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, nicknamed "Star Wars") and its successor programs. This project aimed to employ ground-based or space-based laser systems to destroy incoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). However, various practical challenges, such as directing a laser over a large distance through the atmosphere, complicated the implementation of these systems. Optical scattering and refraction would bend and distort the laser beam, making it difficult to aim and reducing its efficiency.
A related concept from the SDI project was the nuclear-pumped X-ray laser, an orbiting atomic bomb surrounded by laser media in the form of glass rods. When the bomb detonated, the rods would be exposed to highly-energetic gamma-rayphotons, causing spontaneous and stimulated emission of X-ray photons within the rod atoms. This process would result in optical amplification of the X-ray photons, generating an X-ray laser beam that would be minimally affected by atmospheric distortion and capable of destroying ICBMs in flight. However, the X-ray laser would be a single-use device, as it would destroy itself upon activation. Some initial tests of this concept were conducted with underground nuclear testing, but the results were not promising. Research into this approach to missile defense was discontinued after the SDI program was canceled.
Iron Beam uses a fiber laser to destroy an airborne target. Whether acting as a stand-alone system or with external cueing as part of an air-defense system, a threat is detected by a surveillance system and tracked by vehicle platforms in order to engage.[16]
Iron Beam is expected to be operational by the end of 2025.[17][18]
Anti-drone systems
In the 21st century, several countries have developed anti-drone laser systems to counter the increasing threat of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). These systems are designed to detect, track, and destroy drones using high-powered lasers, offering a cost-effective and flexible solution for airspace protection.
In the United States, Lockheed Martin demonstrated the capabilities of its ATHENA laser system in 2017, which uses a 30-kilowatt ALADIN laser to target and destroy UAVs.[19] Another American company, Raytheon, developed the High-Energy Laser Weapon System (HELWS) in 2019, which is capable of detecting and destroying drones at a distance of up to three kilometers.[19]
Turkey has also invested in the development of laser weapons, with companies like Roketsan producing the ALKA system, which combines laser and electromagnetic weapons to incapacitate and destroy single or group targets.[19] Other Turkish companies, such as Aselsan and TUBITAK BILGEM, have also demonstrated laser systems capable of targeting small UAVs and explosive devices.[19]
Germany is another leader in the development of combat laser systems, with defense company Rheinmetall working on stationary and mobile versions of its High Energy Laser (HEL) system since the 2000s.[19] Rheinmetall's lasers are designed to protect against a variety of threats, including small and medium-sized UAVs, helicopters, missiles, mines, and artillery shells.[19]
Israel has also been actively developing laser weapons, with companies like Rafael Advanced Defense Systems demonstrating the compact Drone Dome system in 2020, which is designed to destroy UAVs and their swarms.[19] Another Israeli system, called Light Blade, was developed by OptiDefense to counter terrorist threats such as mini UAVs and explosive devices attached to balloons or kites.[19]
The development and deployment of these anti-drone laser systems show the increasing importance of protecting airspace from emerging threats, while also providing a cost-effective and flexible solution for defense forces around the world.
An electrolaser first ionizes its target path, and then sends an electric current down the conducting track of ionized plasma, somewhat like lightning. It functions as a giant, high-energy, long-distance version of the Taser or stun gun.
Pulsed Energy Projectile or PEP systems emit an infrared laser pulse which creates rapidly expanding plasma at the target. The resulting sound, shock and electromagnetic waves stun the target and cause pain and temporary paralysis. The weapon is under development and is intended as a non-lethal weapon in crowd control though it can also be used as a lethal weapon.
Dazzler
A dazzler is a directed-energy weapon intended to temporarily blind or disorient its target with intense directed radiation. Targets can include sensors or human vision. Dazzlers emit infrared or invisible light against various electronic sensors, and visible light against humans, when they are intended to cause no long-term damage to eyes. The emitters are usually lasers, making what is termed a laser dazzler. Most of the contemporary systems are man-portable, and operate in either the red (a laser diode) or green (a diode-pumped solid-state laser, DPSS) areas of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Initially developed for military use, non-military products are becoming available for use in law enforcement and security.[20][21]
United States government nuclear weapons research program to develop a nuclear pumped x-ray laser as a directed energy weapon for ballistic missile defense.
Soviet laser facility thought to be a powerful anti-satellite weapon prototype; later found to be a testing site with limited satellite tracking capabilities.
Abandoned, partially disassembled
US Army Missile Command laser
Ruggedized tunable laser emitting narrow-linewidth in the yellow-orange-red part of the spectrum.
Soviet/Russian CO2 gas laser mounted on an Ilyushin Il-76MD transport. Two units built, with one of them sporting the 1LK222 Sokol Eshelon laser system.
A laser system mounted on a Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT) designed by Boeing. Its current power level is 10 kW, which will be boosted to 50 kW, and expected to eventually be upgraded to 100 kW. Targets that can be engaged are mortar rounds, artillery shells and rockets, unmanned aerial vehicles, and cruise missiles.
A 60 kW fiber laser developed by Lockheed Martin to be mounted on the HEMTT that maintains beam quality at high power outputs while using less electricity than solid-state lasers.
FEL technology is being evaluated by the US Navy as a candidate for an antiaircraft and anti-missile directed-energy weapon. The Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility's FEL has demonstrated over 14kW power output. Compact multi-megawatt class FEL weapons are undergoing research.
Chinese fiber-optic laser air-defense system. Described as being able to penetrate five 2 millimeter steel plates at a range of 800 meters and 5 millimeters of steel at 1,000 meters.
High-energy laser developed by Raytheon Company that can be mounted on a MRZR and used to disable an unmanned aerial system from approximately 1 mile away.
Laser gun successfully tested by the U.S. Navy, mounted on the former USS Paul F. Foster and demonstrated destructive capability on a high-speed cruising target.
30 kW directed-energy weapon developed by the United States. Field tested on USSPonce in 2014 and later moved to USSPortland(LPD-27) after Ponce was decommissioned. The AN/SEQ-3 development has been superseded by the HELIOS which also has better tracking of small drones.
2 Kw anti-drone weapon for the French military designed by CILAS and Ariane Group with a range of up to one kilometre. Developed between 2017-2019, land trials were undertaken in 2020 and 2021 while 12-14 June 2023 it was trialled at sea aboard the French destroyer Forbin mounted inside a shipping container. The developer aims to increase its output to 5 Kw.
1-kilowatt laser weapon created by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation in August 2017. Able to create a hole in a metal sheet kept at a distance of 250 meters in 36 seconds.
50 kW scalable laser directed-energy weapon in development by the United Kingdom intended for use against small boats, drones and artillery shells/missiles. Completed the first two of four planned service acceptance trials in 2022. Sea trials aboard a Type 23 frigate are due to begin in 2023 and run for two years. Land based vehicle mounted applications as a point defence system are also being considered.
A 60 kW laser weapon system to be tested on an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer and intended for use against small boats and drones, future versions may also be powerful enough to target missiles or aircraft. Unlike the preceding LaWS which attempted to synchronise six separate fiber lasers into a single coherent beam the HELIOS has Spectral Beam Combination where several individual wavelengths of laser are overlapped on top of each other through a single fiber optic emitter. No longer relying on a burst of accumulated capacitor energy also grants a new capability for sustained low emission to dazzle a drone.
Developed by Hellenic company Soukos Robotics, the SR-42 is a large anti-drone system consisting of radio jammer, microwave jammer, optical dazzler, 12.7mm gun and laser weapon mounted on a unmanned BTR 8×8 vehicle and was unveiled at the Defence Exhibition Athens (DEFEA) in July 2021. It is designed to hit drones every 2–3 seconds with 62 individual blue-violet lasers forming a combined output of 300 Kw, its engagement range is 1 to 25 km, up to a altitude of 10 km. However to reduce thermal signature it is powered entirely by batteries with no onboard power generation giving a maximum engagement duration of 2 hours.[87] The SR-32 is version of the same laser and microwave jammer mounted on a towed trailer, it has 26 lasers producing a combined output of 100 KW with a range of 1 to 10 Km and a ceiling of 1.7 Km
Most of these projects have been canceled, discontinued, never went beyond the prototype or experimental stage, or are only used in niche applications like dazzling, blinding, mine clearance or close defense against small, unprotected targets. Effective, high performance laser weapons seem to be difficult to achieve using current or near-future technology.[4][3][92]
Laser beams begin to cause plasma breakdown in the atmosphere at energy densities of around one megajoule per cubic centimeter. This effect, called "blooming," causes the laser to defocus and disperse energy into the surrounding air. Blooming can be more severe if there is fog, smoke, dust, rain, snow, smog, or foam in the air.
Techniques that may reduce these effects include:
Spreading the beam across a large, curved mirror that focuses the power on the target, to keep energy density en route too low for blooming to happen. This requires a large, very precise, fragile mirror, mounted somewhat like a searchlight, requiring bulky machinery to slew the mirror to aim the laser.
Using a phased array. For typical laser wavelengths, this method would require billions of micrometer-size antennae. There is currently no known way to implement these, though carbon nanotubes have been proposed. Phased arrays could theoretically also perform phase-conjugate amplification (see below). Phased arrays do not require mirrors or lenses, and can be made flat and thus do not require a turret-like system (as in "spread beam") to be aimed, though range will suffer if the target is at extreme angles to the surface of the phased array.[93]
Using a phase-conjugate laser system. This method employs a "finder" or "guide" laser illuminating the target. Any mirror-like ("specular") points on the target reflect light that is sensed by the weapon's primary amplifier. The weapon then amplifies inverted waves, in a positive feedback loop, destroying the target, with shockwaves as the specular regions evaporate. This avoids blooming because the waves from the target pass through the blooming, and therefore show the most conductive optical path; this automatically corrects for the distortions caused by blooming. Experimental systems using this method usually use special chemicals to form a "phase-conjugate mirror". In most systems, however, the mirror overheats dramatically at weapon-useful power levels.
Using a very short pulse that finishes before blooming interferes, but this requires a very high power laser to concentrate large amounts of energy in that pulse which does not exist in a weaponized or easily weaponizable form.[a]
Focusing multiple lasers of relatively low power on a single target. This is increasingly bulky as the total power of the system increases.
Countermeasures
Essentially, a laser generates a beam of light which will be delayed or stopped by any opaque medium and perturbed by any translucent or less than perfectly transparent medium just like any other type of light. A simple, dense smoke screen can and will often block a laser beam. Infrared or multi-spectrum[94]smoke grenades or generators will also disturb or block infrared laser beams. Any opaque case, cowling, bodywork, fuselage, hull, wall, shield or armor will absorb at least the "first impact" of a laser weapon, so the beam must be sustained to achieve penetration.
The Chinese People's Liberation Army has invested in the development of specialized coatings that can deflect beams fired by U.S. military lasers. Laser light can be deflected, reflected, or absorbed by manipulating physical and chemical properties of materials. Artificial coatings can counter certain specific types of lasers, but a different type of laser may match the coating's absorption spectrum enough to transfer damaging amounts of energy. The coatings are made of several different substances, including low-cost metals, rare earths, carbon fiber, silver, and diamonds that have been processed to fine sheens and tailored against specific laser weapons. China is developing anti-laser defenses because protection against them is considered far cheaper than creating competing laser weapons.[95]
Dielectric mirrors, inexpensive ablative coatings, thermal transport delay, and obscurants are also being studied as countermeasures.[96] In not a few operational situations, even simple, passive countermeasures like rapid rotation (which spreads the heat and does not allow a fixed targeting point except in strictly frontal engagements), higher acceleration (which increases the distance and changes the angle quickly), or agile maneuvering during the terminal attack phase (which hampers the ability to target a vulnerable point, forces a constant re-aiming or tracking with close to zero lag, and allows for some cooling) can defeat or help to defeat non-highly pulsed, high-energy laser weapons.[97]
Arthur C. Clarke envisaged particle beam weapons in his 1955 novel Earthlight, in which energy would be delivered by high-velocity beams of matter.[98] After the invention of the laser in 1960, it briefly became the death ray of choice for science fiction writers.[99] By the late 1960s and 1970s, as the laser's limits as a weapon became evident, the ray gun began to be replaced by similar weapons with names that better reflected the destructive capabilities of the device, such as the blaster in Star Wars or phasers in Star Trek, which were originally lasers.
The AGM-114 Hellfire is an American missile developed for anti-armor use, later developed for precision drone strikes against other target types, especially high-value targets. It was originally developed under the name "Heliborne laser, fire-and-forget missile", which led to the colloquial name "Hellfire" ultimately becoming the missile's formal name. It has a multi-mission, multi-target precision-strike ability and can be launched from multiple air, sea, and ground platforms, including the MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper. The Hellfire missile is the primary 100-pound (45 kg) class air-to-ground precision weapon for the armed forces of the United States and many other countries. It has also been fielded on surface platforms in the surface-to-surface and surface-to-air roles.
The Boeing YAL-1 airborne laser testbed was a modified Boeing 747-400F with a megawatt-class chemical oxygen iodine laser (COIL) mounted inside. It was primarily designed to test its feasibility as a missile defense system to destroy tactical ballistic missiles (TBMs) while in boost phase. The aircraft was designated YAL-1A in 2004 by the U.S. Department of Defense.
A directed-energy weapon (DEW) is a ranged weapon that damages its target with highly focused energy without a solid projectile, including lasers, microwaves, particle beams, and sound beams. Potential applications of this technology include weapons that target personnel, missiles, vehicles, and optical devices.
Space warfare is combat in which one or more belligerents are in outer space. The scope of space warfare includes ground-to-space warfare, such as attacking satellites from the Earth; space-to-space warfare, such as satellites attacking satellites; and space-to-ground warfare, such as satellites attacking Earth-based targets. Space warfare in fiction is thus sub-genre and theme of science fiction, where it is portrayed with a range of realism and plausibility. In the real world, international treaties are in place that attempt to regulate conflicts in space and limit the installation of space weapon systems, especially nuclear weapons.
The Avenger Air Defense System, designated AN/TWQ-1 under the Joint Electronics Type Designation System, is an American self-propelled surface-to-air missile system which provides mobile, short-range air defense protection for ground units against cruise missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, low-flying fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters.
The High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS), is a counter-RAM system under development that will use a powerful (150 kW) laser to shoot down rockets, missiles, artillery and mortar shells. The initial system will be demonstrated from a static ground-based installation, but in order to eventually be integrated on an aircraft, the final design would require a maximum weight of 750 kg (1,650 lb) and a maximum envelope of 2 cubic meters (70.6 feet3).
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) include both autonomous drones and remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs). A UAV is capable of controlled, sustained level flight and is powered by a jet, reciprocating, or electric engine. In the twenty-first century, technology reached a point of sophistication that the UAV is now being given a greatly expanded role in many areas of aviation.
The history of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) is closely tied to the general history of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). While the technology dates back at least as far as the 1940s, common usage in live operations came in the 2000s. UCAVs have now become an important part of modern warfare, including in the Syrian civil war, the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar, abbreviated C-RAM or counter-RAM, is a set of systems used to detect and/or destroy incoming rockets, artillery, and mortars before they hit their targets, or provide early warning.
The AGM-176 Griffin is a lightweight, precision-guided munition developed by Raytheon. It can be launched from the ground or air as a rocket-powered missile or dropped from the air as a guided bomb. It carries a relatively small warhead, and was designed to be a precision low-collateral damage weapon for irregular warfare. It has been used in combat by the United States military during the War in Afghanistan.
Boeing Laser Avenger is an infrared laser system mounted on an AN/TWQ-1 Avenger combat vehicle developed by Boeing Combat Systems in Huntsville, Alabama.
Martlet or the Lightweight Multirole Missile(LMM) is a lightweight air-to-surface, air-to-air, surface-to-air, and surface-to-surface missile developed by Thales Air Defence for the United Kingdom. It is named after a mythical bird from English heraldry that never roosts, the Martlet.
Drone warfare is a form of warfare using robots. Robot types include unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAV) or weaponized commercial unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), unmanned surface vehicles, and ground based drones. The United States, the United Kingdom, Israel, China, South Korea, Iran, Iraq, Italy, France, India, Pakistan, Russia, Turkey, Ukraine, and Poland are known to have manufactured operational UCAVs as of 2019.
The AN/SEQ-3 Laser Weapon System or XN-1 LaWS is a laser weapon developed by the United States Navy. The weapon was installed on USS Ponce for field testing in 2014. In December 2014, the United States Navy reported that the LaWS system worked perfectly against low-end asymmetric threats, and that the commander of Ponce was authorized to use the system as a defensive weapon. Due to various operational problems, LaWS was never put into mass production; it was replaced by the High Energy Laser with Integrated Optical-dazzler and Surveillance.
Iron Beam, officially מגן אור, Shield of Light is a directed-energy weapon air defense system unveiled at the Singapore Airshow on February 11, 2014 by Israeli defense contractor Rafael Advanced Defense Systems.
The Skyranger 30 is a short range air defense turret system developed by Rheinmetall Air Defence AG and first revealed in March 2021. Its role is to provide ground units with a mobile system capable of engaging fixed and rotary-wing aircraft, Group I and II unmanned aerial systems (UAS), loitering munitions and cruise missiles.
The Leonidas is a high-power microwave (HPM) weapon developed to disable unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms. It was named after Leonidas of Epirus.
The High Energy Laser with Integrated Optical-dazzler and Surveillance (HELIOS) is a Lockheed Martin-developed 60-120 Kilowatt high-energy laser weapon designed to intercept combat drones, fast-attack craft, and missiles. After winning the contract in 2018, the first announced installation was on the USS Preble (DDG-88) in 2019. By 2021 it was reportedly deployed onto an Arleigh Burke-class ship as part of its anti-air Aegis Combat System.
The Radio Frequency Directed Energy Weapon (RFDEW) is a British directed-energy weapon and electronic warfare (EW) system currently under development for the British Armed Forces. It is a joint project of the UK Ministry of Defence's Defence Science and Technology Laboratory and Defence Equipment & Support agencies, working in conjunction with industry partners. It was first unveiled publicly on 16 May 2024 and was developed under Project Hersa.
↑ Eva D. Blaylock (Air Force Research Laboratory Directed Energy Directorate Public Affairs). New technology 'dazzles' aggressors, The Official Website of the U.S. Air Force, Posted 2 November 2005
↑ F. J. Duarte, W. E. Davenport, J. J. Ehrlich, and T. S. Taylor, Ruggedized narrow-linewidth dispersive dye laser oscillator, Opt. Commun.84, 310–316 (1991).
↑ Whitney, Roy; Douglas, David; Neil, George (2005). Wood, Gary L (ed.). "Airborne megawatt class free-electron laser for defense and security". Laser Source and System Technology for Defense and Security. 5792: 109. Bibcode:2005SPIE.5792..109W. doi:10.1117/12.603906. OSTI841301. S2CID111883401.
↑ Richard D. Fisher, Jr. (23 February 2017). "China's Progress with Directed Energy Weapons"(PDF). p.8. A Poly video showed this laser could 'ablate' or penetrate five 2 millimeter steel plates at a range of 800 meters, and an official stated it could penetrate 5 millimeters of steel at 1,000 meters.
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