Occupational hazards of solar panel installation

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Installing solar panels Installing solar panels (3049032865).jpg
Installing solar panels

The introduction and rapid expansion of solar technology has brought with it a number of occupational hazards for workers responsible for panel installation. Guidelines for safe solar panel installation exist, [1] however the injuries related to panel installation are poorly quantified.

Contents

There is concern for long term health effects acquired from prolonged ultraviolet radiation and from lifting heavy panels. The lack of data regarding these concerns makes increasing awareness for worker safety more challenging.

Exposures and health effects

With regard to PV occupational safety, there are differing exposures depending on the stage of involvement in Solar energy production. This can be broken down into four stages. Exposures and their impacts on worker health intricately depend on the PV life-cycle stage, as well as depth and duration of system involvement by the individual.

There is a wide variety of tasks required by the PV industry. These include scientists and engineers for material development, workers who pilot manufacturing facilities, miners and millers, factory manufacturers, power electronics, planners, developers, installation crews who work with electrical grids, transportation jobs, and recycling industry. [2]

Raw material mining and processing

Hazards in this stage are mainly chemical in nature. They include crystalline silicon, amorphous silicon thin film, cadmium telluride thin film, copper indium selenide, copper indium gallium selenide, and gallium arsenide. [2] [3] [4] These are highly toxic and flammable; hazardous exposures can come via chemical burns, explosions, and inhalation of gaseous fumes. Other routes can include hand-to-mouth contact or accidental ingestion. Most solar cells start as quartz, which is later refined into elemental silicon, which risks lung disease silicosis amongst miners. [5]

Construction and assembly

During the manufacturing process, workers are exposed to a variety of toxic chemicals. Some of these chemicals such as telluride, cadmium telluride, gallium, and germanium are still under study. [6] Other chemicals like chlorosilanes and hydrogen chloride are not only toxic but highly volatile and explosive when mixed with water. [7]

In crystalline silicon solar cell production, workers may be exposed to hydrofluoric acid, or other acids and alkalis used for cleaning purposes, dopant gases and vapors (POCl3, B2H6) due to improper ventilation, or the flammable nature of silane and byproducts from silicon nitride deposition and fabrication of x-Si layers. [4] Other fire-hazard risks arise from the use of extremely flammable SiH4 gas. Exposure to cadmium compounds can be carcinogenic, as Cd is considered a lung carcinogen and is regulated by OSHA. [3]

Installation/operation

Installing solar panels Installing solar panels (3049873254).jpg
Installing solar panels

Falls from heights are a significant risk for panel installers. Fatal falls from the installation phase have been reported from California and in France. [6] Health effects associated with falls from roofs include, but are not limited to: skeletomuscular injuries, brain or spine injuries, concussions, lacerations, bruising, swelling, long-term disability, and/or mortality. [8]

Falls are more likely when roofing is old or damaged, or when panels are located close to edges, skylights, and vegetation. [9] Other injury factors include lack of fall protection, proximity to overhead power lines, and unguarded skylights. [2] It has been argued that incorporating PV technology into roof membranes, roof shingles, wall panels, or windows would reduce fall risk. [9]

Installation effectively combines three high risk industries in one: roofing, carpentry, and electrical work. [2] There is a risk of electrocution from installation or nearby power lines, [10] as well as ergonomic risks from heavy loads or a lack of lifting equipment. Cold or heat stress and sun exposure can also occur. [11]

Solar Farm Solar Farm - panoramio.jpg
Solar Farm

There may also be a risk for infectious disease spread amongst PV employees. Solar farm construction requires soil-disruptive work, which can precipitate exposure to soil-dwelling organisms. Such cases have been documented in San Luis Obispo County, California between 2011-2014, where 44 workers came down with coccidioidomycosis while constructing solar power-generating facilities. [12] Coccidioidomycosis (or "Valley Fever") is an infection caused by Coccidioides fungus spores and causes flu-like symptoms, as well as more serious complications such as meningitis, osteomyelitis, or cutaneous lesions. [12] These can be fatal if not treated. In response to these isolated cases, the California Department of Public Health issued numerous recommendations, including improved worksite dust-control measures, equipping earth-moving equipment with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, and respiratory protection for workers such as respirators with specialized particulate filters. [12]

Occupational hazards may be exacerbated in settings with fewer worker protection policies in place, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations. PV manufacturing has moved from Europe, Japan, and the U.S. to countries such as China, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Taiwan, with nearly half of the world's photovoltaics made in China as of 2014. [5]

End of life and recycling

End-of-life recycling is also a source of hazardous chemical exposures for workers. [13] Green recycling requires increased material handling and manual separation, which can demand two to three times more individual handing of materials. This can present a risk for strains, sprains, and punctures. [13]

PV end-of-life materials can include lead from electronic circuits, as well as brominated flame retardants (BFRs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) used in circuit boards and solar panel inverters. These are considered toxic and potential estrogen disrupters, as PBDEs bioaccumulate in fatty tissues. [3] [14]

Other hazards

Many solar PV technologies use extremely toxic material that have unknown health and environmental consequences including new nano-materials and processes. [15] There is limited data on specific air emissions and liquid or solid effluents from PV cells and processing. [6]

Policy

Research is currently underway exploring the possibility of replacing a number of the more hazardous chemicals workers are exposed to, such as cadmium and hydrofluoric acid, with less toxic chemicals. [5]

Regarding policies related to solar panel installation, OSHA requires employers to implement and provide safety training for workers, including information on how to assess the worksite for potential hazards, safely perform required action such as heavy lifting, and what to do should an accident occur. This type of protection falls on the tip of on the hierarchy of controls as the least effective measure to ensure the safety of workers. [16]

Hierarchy of Controls (By NIOSH) NIOSH's "Hierarchy of Controls infographic" as SVG.svg
Hierarchy of Controls (By NIOSH)

In recent years the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health launched the Prevention through Design (PtD) initiative. This initiative strives to improve the health and safety of workers by taking a comprehensive approach to eliminate hazards and control risks earlier in the process.

In 2013, SEIA introduced the Solar Industry Environmental & Social Responsibility Commitment, a voluntary set of guidelines for the solar industry. Companies can choose to sign and agree to adhere to general best practices, including those for worker safety. [5]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photovoltaics</span> Method to produce electricity from solar radiation

Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commercially used for electricity generation and as photosensors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hygiene</span> Management of workplace health hazards

Occupational hygiene is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control, and confirmation (ARECC) of protection from risks associated with exposures to hazards in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well-being of workers and members of the community. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the categories biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic and psychosocial. The risk of a health effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the dose response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Occupational hygienists work closely with toxicologists for understanding chemical hazards, physicists for physical hazards, and physicians and microbiologists for biological hazards. Environmental and occupational hygienists are considered experts in exposure science and exposure risk management. Depending on an individual's type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cadmium telluride</span> Semiconductor chemical compound used in solar cells

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is a stable crystalline compound formed from cadmium and tellurium. It is mainly used as the semiconducting material in cadmium telluride photovoltaics and an infrared optical window. It is usually sandwiched with cadmium sulfide to form a p–n junction solar PV cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar cell</span> Photodiode used to produce power from light on a large scale

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell, a device whose electrical characteristics vary when it is exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as "solar panels". Almost all commercial PV cells consist of crystalline silicon, with a market share of 95%. Cadmium telluride thin-film solar cells account for the remainder. The common single-junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar panel</span> Assembly of photovoltaic cells used to generate electricity

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce excited electrons when exposed to light. The electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels, solar electric panels, or PV modules.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hazard</span> Hazard experienced in the workplace

An occupational hazard is a hazard experienced in the workplace. This encompasses many types of hazards, including chemical hazards, biological hazards (biohazards), psychosocial hazards, and physical hazards. In the United States, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conduct workplace investigations and research addressing workplace health and safety hazards resulting in guidelines. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) establishes enforceable standards to prevent workplace injuries and illnesses. In the EU, a similar role is taken by EU-OSHA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">First Solar</span> American solar power company

First Solar, Inc. is a public traded American manufacturer of solar panels, and a provider of utility-scale PV power plants and supporting services that include finance, construction, maintenance and end-of-life panel recycling. First Solar uses rigid thin-film modules for its solar panels, and produces CdTe panels using cadmium telluride (CdTe) as a semiconductor. The company was founded in 1990 by inventor Harold McMaster as Solar Cells, Inc. and the Florida Corporation in 1993 with JD Polk. In 1999 it was purchased by True North Partners, LLC, who rebranded it as First Solar, Inc.

MiaSolé is an American solar energy company selling copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) thin-film photovoltaic products. MiaSolé's manufacturing process lays CIGS on a flexible stainless steel substrate. MiaSolé produces all layers of photovoltaic material in a continuous sputtering process.

A photovoltaic system, also called a PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the output from direct to alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling, and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. Many utility-scale PV systems use tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems.

The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition (SVTC) was formed in San Jose, California- as a research and advocacy group that promoted safe environmental practices in the high tech industry. The organization was founded in 1982 after leaks at manufacturing sites at IBM and Fairchild Electronics were suspected of causing widespread birth defects and health issues in the Silicon Valley.

Silicor Materials Inc. is a privately held manufacturer of solar silicon and aluminum alloy. Silicor is headquartered in San Jose, California, and its silicon purification operations are performed by its wholly owned subsidiary, Silicor Materials Canada Inc., in Ontario, Canada. Silicor also has a research and development facility in Berlin, Germany, and is currently building a commercial manufacturing facility in the port of Grundartangi, Iceland. The facility will have a nameplate capacity of 16,000 metric tons, with the ability to yield up to 19,000 metric tons of solar silicon each year. To date, more than 20 million solar cells have been made with Silicor's solar silicon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cadmium telluride photovoltaics</span> Type of solar power cell

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics is a photovoltaic (PV) technology based on the use of cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film technology with lower costs than conventional solar cells made of crystalline silicon in multi-kilowatt systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thin-film solar cell</span> Type of second-generation solar cell

Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing one or more thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are typically a few nanometers (nm) to a few microns (μm) thick–much thinner than the wafers used in conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells, which can be up to 200 μm thick. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Growth of photovoltaics</span> Worldwide growth of photovoltaics

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reproductive toxicity</span> A hazard associated with chemical substances

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical hazard</span> Hazard due to a physical agent

A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm with contact. They can be classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards. Engineering controls are often used to mitigate physical hazards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar Frontier</span>

Solar Frontier Kabushiki Kaisha is a Japanese photovoltaic company that develops and manufactures thin film solar cells using CIGS technology. It is a fully owned subsidiary of Showa Shell Sekiyu and located in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. The company was founded in 2006 as Showa Shell Solar, and renamed Solar Frontier in April 2010.

References

  1. ↑ Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA): Solar Construction Safety. (Dec. 2006). Retrieved from http://www.coshnetwork.org/sites/default/files/OSEIA_Solar_Safety_12-06.pdf
  2. 1 2 3 4 Mulloy, Karen B; Sumner, Steven A; Rose, Cecile; Conway, George A; Reynolds, Stephen J; Davidson, Margaret E; Heidel, Donna S; Layde, Peter M (2013). "Renewable energy and occupational health and safety research directions: A white paper from the Energy Summit, Denver Colorado, April 11-13, 2011". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 56 (11): 1359–70. doi: 10.1002/ajim.22184 . PMC   9552965 . PMID   23996832.
  3. 1 2 3 Coalition, S. V. T. (2009). Toward a Just and Sustainable Solar Energy Industry. San Jose: Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition.
  4. 1 2 Fthenakis, V. M; Moskowitz, P. D (2000). "Photovoltaics: Environmental, health and safety issues and perspectives". Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications. 8 (1): 27–38. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.456.788 . doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<27::AID-PIP296>3.0.CO;2-8.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Mulvaney, Dustin (2014). "Solar's green dilemma". IEEE Spectrum. 51 (9): 30–3. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2014.6882984. S2CID   37574659.
  6. 1 2 3 Bakhiyi, Bouchra; Labrèche, France; Zayed, Joseph (2014). "The photovoltaic industry on the path to a sustainable future — Environmental and occupational health issues". Environment International. 73: 224–34. Bibcode:2014EnInt..73..224B. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.07.023 . PMID   25168128.
  7. ↑ Concerns, H. a. (2010). Retrieved from State Smart Transportation Initiative: https://www.ssti.us/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Health_and_Safety_Concerns_of_Photovoltaic_Solar_Panels_2010_OR.pdf
  8. ↑ California Department of Public Health Occupational Health Branch, FACE Program. "Solar panel installer falls off roof" (PDF). Face Facts California fatality Assessment & Control evaluation program. Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  9. 1 2 Dewlaney, Katie Shawn; Hallowell, Matthew (2012). "Prevention through design and construction safety management strategies for high performance sustainable building construction". Construction Management and Economics. 30 (2): 165–77. doi:10.1080/01446193.2011.654232. S2CID   109401657.
  10. ↑ California Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (CA/FACE) Program (January 27, 2009). "Laborer Dies When He Falls 35 Feet From a Scaffold After Being Electrocuted" (PDF). California Department of Public Health. Retrieved March 30, 2018.
  11. ↑ Valenti, Antonio; Gagliardi, Diana; Fortuna, Grazia; Iavicoli, Sergio (2016). "Towards a greener labour market: Occupational health and safety implications". Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità. 52 (3): 415–423. doi:10.4415/ANN_16_03_13. PMID   27698300.
  12. 1 2 3 Wilken, Jason A; Sondermeyer, Gail; Shusterman, Dennis; McNary, Jennifer; Vugia, Duc J; McDowell, Ann; Borenstein, Penny; Gilliss, Debra; Ancock, Benedict; Prudhomme, Janice; Gold, Deborah; Windham, Gayle C; Lee, Lauren; Materna, Barbara L (2015). "Coccidioidomycosis among Workers Constructing Solar Power Farms, California, USA, 2011–2014". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 21 (11): 1997–2005. doi:10.3201/eid2111.150129. PMC   4622237 . PMID   26484688.
  13. 1 2 Gambatese, John A.; Rajendran, Sathyanarayanan; Behm, Michael G. (May 2007). "Green Design & Construction Understanding the Effects On Construction Worker Safety And Health". Professional Safety. 52 (5): 28–35.
  14. ↑ Kamenopoulos, Sotiris N; Tsoutsos, Theocharis (2015). "Assessment of the safe operation and maintenance of photovoltaic systems". Energy. 93 (2): 1633–8. Bibcode:2015Ene....93.1633K. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2015.10.037.
  15. ↑ Taylor, David A. (2010). "OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH: On the Job with Solar PV". Environmental Health Perspectives. 118 (1): A19. doi:10.1289/ehp.118-2831982. PMC   2831982 . PMID   20061224.
  16. ↑ The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). (2016, July 18) Hierarchy of Controls. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/
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