Oxitec

Last updated

Oxitec
Industry Biotechnology
Founded Oxford, United Kingdom (2002 (2002))
Key people
  • Luke Alphey (Founder), Grey Frandsen (CEO)
Parent Third Security
Website oxitec.com

Oxitec is a UK-based, US-owned biotechnology company that develops genetically modified insects [1] in order to improve public health and food security through insect control. The insects act as biological insecticides. Insects are controlled without the use of chemical insecticides. Instead, the insects are genetically engineered to be unable to produce offspring. The company claims that this technology is more effective than insecticides and more environmentally friendly. [2]

Contents

History

Oxitec was founded in 2002 as Oxford Insect Technologies in the United Kingdom by Luke Alphey and David Kelly, working with Oxford University's Isis Innovation technology transfer company. [3] In August 2015, Oxitec was purchased by U.S.-based Intrexon for $160 million, [4] [5] [6] and by US-based Third Security in early 2020. [7]

The company's first engineered insect was the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella). It was experimentally released in Arizona in 2006. [8] It then modified Aedes egyptii, followed by a series of field trials in multiple countries.

Grey Frandsen was appointed CEO in 2017. [9] He is an American who led start-up initiatives in the U.S. government and the private and non-profit sectors on matters relating to national and global public health security, biotechnology and crisis response. [10] Frandsen led the company's transition to its 2nd generation technology in 2018. [11] [12] [13] During the 2010s, Oxitec established partnerships with agricultural industry [14] leaders and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. [15] Frandsen was named one of Malaria No More's 10-to-End innovators in 2019. [16]

Genetically modified insects

Oxitec's original insight was that genetically modifying insects could disrupt their ability to reproduce and over time, reduce their populations. Oxitec has developed genetically modified versions of A. aegypti, P. gossypiella. [17] [18]

Its OX513A strain alters males to produce protein tTA, which negatively affects cell development. [19]

OX5034 male offspring survive, allowing mating cycles that further reduce the population. In each generation fewer males pass on their self-limiting genes. OX5034 males were expected to disappear from the environment 10 generations after releases stop. [20]

Modified males mate with wild females. The self-limiting gene prevents female offspring from surviving. The engineered gene based on elements found in E. coli and the herpes simplex virus, causes the female offspring’s cells to produce tTAV protein. [21]

Projects

Grand Cayman

The first field trials were performed on Grand Cayman, starting in 2009. Approximately 3.3 million transgenic male A. aegypti were released. The experiments demonstrated that the animals were able to survive in this environment and produce offspring. Some eleven weeks after the release, the observed A. aegypti population declined about 80%. The tests were deemed a scientific success, but criticism emerged over communication policy. [22] In May 2016 Grand Cayman announced a program to use Oxitec mosquitoes. The first phase informed the community about the programme. The next phase treated an area with about 1,800 residents in West Bay. 88% fewer A. aegypti eggs were observed compared to an equivalent untreated area. [23] [24] [25]

In November 2018, the Cayman Islands government elected to cease any new field trial agreements with Oxitec, citing cost-benefit concerns with the technologies as the primary concern. [26] Health Minister Dwayne Seymour and other legislators expressed skepticism on-the-record about the trials' effectiveness. [27] However, Oxitec and the Mosquito Research and Control Unit of the Cayman Islands continue to analyze the data collected over the 10 year project. [28]

Brazil

In 2011 Oxitec conducted a field test in cooperation with the company Moscamed and the University of São Paulo. The observed population declined by 80–95%. [29] [30]

In July 2015, Oxitec released results of a test in the Juazeiro region of Brazil to fight Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika viruses. They concluded that mosquito populations were reduced by about 95%. [31] [32] It was used to try to combat Zika in Piracicaba, São Paulo in 2016. [33]

A 2013 OX513A project in Jacobina in the state of Bahia Some 450,000 males were released every week for 27 months. Wild populations were studied before the program began and at intervals of 6, 12 and 27 to 30 months. [34]

Another OX513A field test began on 23 May 2018 in Indaiatuba, a municipality in the state of São Paulo. The company announced the trial's results in June 2019, reporting that the project reduced the mosquito population by 79%. [35]

A 2019 outside study reported that genes characteristic of the altered males had entered the wild population. [19] Oxitec put out a statement, citing concern with the paper's "misleading and speculative statements". The company's statement included rebuttals directed of some of its claims. All of these were confirmed by Scientific Reports and Nature Magazine in March 2020 in an Editorial Expression of Concern. [36] [37]

It was reported that some of the authors claimed that they had not approved the version that was submitted for publication. [37] Several critics responded to the paper, [38] including entomologist Jason Rasgon of Pennsylvania State University, who stated that the finding was important, but that some claims were overstated and irresponsible. [39]

A 2018-2019 Indaiatuba study of four densely populated neighborhoods with high levels of Aedes aegypti reported that mosquito populations declined an average 88 percent over 11 months in those neighborhoods. In two, scientists released 100 male mosquito eggs per resident per week and 500 in the others, reporting that the smaller numbers were as effective as the higher ones. Boxes filled with eggs are available for home and business use. [21]

Malaysia

Field trials were carried out in Malaysia in 2015. [40]

Panama

Field trials were conducted in Panama in 2016. [41]

United States

Arizona

The company released an engineered pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) in Arizona in 2006. [8]

Florida

A 2016 field trial planned in Florida was cancelled. [42] [43] [44]

Oxitec was invited to the Florida Keys in the early 2010s. [45] The company conducted extensive community engagement. [46] [47] [48] A November 2016 referendum showed overwhelming local support for the project to release genetically engineered male mosquitos. 31 out of 33 Monroe County precincts voted in favor. [49] [50] [51] The company established waitlists due to resident interest in hosting mosquito boxes. [52] [53]

Some residents opposed the project, worrying about bites by the mosquitoes (male mosquitoes do not have the mouthparts to bite). Others were unhappy about becoming a test site, with some threatening to derail the experiments by filling the mosquito boxes with bleach.[ citation needed ]

In 2020, Oxitec's OX5034 mosquito was approved for release by state and federal authorities for use in Florida. [54] In April 2021, boxes containing mosquito eggs were placed at six locations. Once they hatched, about 12,000 males were expected weekly over the following 12 weeks, totaling 144k. In the second phase, nearly 20 million mosquitoes were expected over 16 weeks. [55] In 2022, 5 million mosquitoes were released. All female offspring that inherited the lethal gene were reported to have died before reaching adulthood. The company also reported that spread of the related mutations was limited to a small area. [56]

California

In 2022, EPA officials approved the release of 2.4 billion males of A. aegypti in California's Central Valley through 2024. The project is a partnership with the Delta Mosquito and Vector Control district in Tulare county. It awaits approval by California pesticide regulators. Specimens cannot be released near any potential tetracycline sources (which allows females to develop), or within 500 meters of wastewater treatment facilities, commercial citrus, apple, pear, nectarine, peach growing areas, or livestock. Opponents include Friends of the Earth, the Institute for Responsible Tech and the Center for Food Safety who object to the lack of public data on the Florida trial and the technique's experimental status. Specimens have been identified in 21 of California's 58 counties. [57]

In 2022 Oxitec was seeking approval for a pilot release. [21]

Regulation

OX513A was approved by Brazil's National Biosecurity Technical Commission (CTNBio) in April 2014. [58] In January 2016 Brazil's National Biosafety Committee approved the release Oxitec mosquitos throughout their country. [31] [32]

Brazil's health-regulatory agency, Anvisa, declared on 12 April 2016 that it would regulate Oxitec's mosquitoes. Anvisa announced that it was creating a legal framework for regulations. It requested Oxitec to demonstrate that its technology was safe and could reduce the transmission of mosquito-borne viruses. [59]

In 2020 Brazilian Biosafety Regulatory Authority CTNBio granted full commercial biosafety approval for Oxitec’s mosquitoes. [60] [61]

Oxitec’s Florida Keys project was approved by federal and state regulators, including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS). In August 2020, the Florida Keys Mosquito Control District (FKMCD) Board of Commissioners approved the project. [62] [63]

The Netherlands agreed to release Oxitec's genetically modified mosquitoes to fight dengue fever, chikungunya and zika in Saba, a Dutch Caribbean island, after a report by The National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) [64] examined the effects that these mosquitoes could have in the local ecosystem and concluded the release of the mosquitoes would not pose risks to human health or the environment. [65]

The French High Council for Biology supported Oxitec mosquito releases in 2017. [65]

Criticism

A 2019 study claimed that Oxitec's first generation A. aegypti (the redundant OX513A) had successfully hybridized with the local A. aegypti population. [19] It was challenged by Oxitec and most of the study's co-authors. The study was found to be purely speculative and is now marked by its publisher with an Editorial Expression of Concern. [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosquito</span> Family of flies

Mosquitoes, the Culicidae, are a family of small flies consisting of 3,600 species. The word mosquito is Spanish and Portuguese for little fly. Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body, one pair of wings, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and specialized, highly elongated, piercing-sucking mouthparts. All mosquitoes drink nectar from flowers; females of some species have in addition adapted to drink blood. The group diversified during the Cretaceous period. Evolutionary biologists view mosquitoes as micropredators, small animals that parasitise larger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them. Medical parasitologists view mosquitoes instead as vectors of disease, carrying protozoan parasites or bacterial or viral pathogens from one host to another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dengue fever</span> Mosquito-borne disease

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease caused by dengue virus, prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. It is frequently asymptomatic; if symptoms appear they typically begin 3 to 14 days after infection. These may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into severe dengue with bleeding, low levels of blood platelets, blood plasma leakage, and dangerously low blood pressure.

<i>Aedes albopictus</i> Species of mosquito

Aedes albopictus, from the mosquito (Culicidae) family, also known as the (Asian) tiger mosquito or forest mosquito, is a mosquito native to the tropical and subtropical areas of Southeast Asia. In the past few centuries, however, this species has spread to many countries through the transport of goods and international travel. It is characterized by the white bands on its legs and body.

<i>Aedes</i> Genus of mosquitoes

Aedes is a genus of mosquitoes originally found in tropical and subtropical zones, but now found on all continents except Antarctica. Some species have been spread by human activity: Aedes albopictus, a particularly invasive species, was spread to the Americas, including the United States, in the 1980s, by the used-tire trade.

<i>Wolbachia</i> Genus of bacteria in the Alphaproteobacteria class

Wolbachia is a genus of gram-negative bacteria that can either infect many species of arthropod as an intracellular parasite, or act as a mutualistic microbe in filarial nematodes. It is one of the most common parasitic microbes of arthropods, and is possibly the most common reproductive parasite in the biosphere. Its interactions with its hosts are often complex. Some host species cannot reproduce, or even survive, without Wolbachia colonisation. One study concluded that more than 16% of neotropical insect species carry bacteria of this genus, and as many as 25 to 70% of all insect species are estimated to be potential hosts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sterile insect technique</span> Method of biological control for insect populations

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a method of biological insect control, whereby overwhelming numbers of sterile insects are released into the wild. The released insects are preferably male, as this is more cost-effective and the females may in some situations cause damage by laying eggs in the crop, or, in the case of mosquitoes, taking blood from humans. The sterile males compete with fertile males to mate with the females. Females that mate with a sterile male produce no offspring, thus reducing the next generation's population. Sterile insects are not self-replicating and, therefore, cannot become established in the environment. Repeated release of sterile males over low population densities can further reduce and in cases of isolation eliminate pest populations, although cost-effective control with dense target populations is subjected to population suppression prior to the release of the sterile males.

<i>Aedes aegypti</i> Species of mosquito

Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that can spread dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro and yellow fever viruses, and other disease agents. The mosquito can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. This mosquito originated in Africa, but is now found in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosquito control</span> Efforts to reduce damage from mosquitoes

Mosquito control manages the population of mosquitoes to reduce their damage to human health, economies, and enjoyment. Mosquito control is a vital public-health practice throughout the world and especially in the tropics because mosquitoes spread many diseases, such as malaria and the Zika virus.

Paratransgenesis is a technique that attempts to eliminate a pathogen from vector populations through transgenesis of a symbiont of the vector. The goal of this technique is to control vector-borne diseases. The first step is to identify proteins that prevent the vector species from transmitting the pathogen. The genes coding for these proteins are then introduced into the symbiont, so that they can be expressed in the vector. The final step in the strategy is to introduce these transgenic symbionts into vector populations in the wild. One use of this technique is to prevent mortality for humans from insect-borne diseases. Preventive methods and current controls against vector-borne diseases depend on insecticides, even though some mosquito breeds may be resistant to them. There are other ways to fully eliminate them. “Paratransgenesis focuses on utilizing genetically modified insect symbionts to express molecules within the vector that are deleterious to pathogens they transmit.” The acidic bacteria Asaia symbionts are beneficial in the normal development of mosquito larvae; however, it is unknown what Asais symbionts do to adult mosquitoes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyriproxyfen</span> Chemical compound

Pyriproxyfen is a pesticide which is found to be effective against a variety of insects. It was introduced to the US in 1996, to protect cotton crops against whitefly. It has also been found useful for protecting other crops. It is also used as a prevention for flea control on household pets, for killing indoor and outdoor ants and roaches. Methods of application include aerosols, bait, carpet powders, foggers, shampoos and pet collars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zika fever</span> Infectious disease caused by the Zika virus

Zika fever, also known as Zika virus disease or simply Zika, is an infectious disease caused by the Zika virus. Most cases have no symptoms, but when present they are usually mild and can resemble dengue fever. Symptoms may include fever, red eyes, joint pain, headache, and a maculopapular rash. Symptoms generally last less than seven days. It has not caused any reported deaths during the initial infection. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy can cause microcephaly and other brain malformations in some babies. Infections in adults have been linked to Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS).

<i>Aedes vexans</i> Species of fly

Aedes vexans, the inland floodwater mosquito or tomguito, is a cosmopolitan and common pest mosquito.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosquito-borne disease</span> Diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes

Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. Nearly 700 million people contract mosquito-borne illnesses each year, resulting in more than a million deaths.

<i>Zika virus</i> Species of flavivirus

Zika virus is a member of the virus family Flaviviridae. It is spread by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus. Its name comes from the Ziika Forest of Uganda, where the virus was first isolated in 1947. Zika virus shares a genus with the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. Since the 1950s, it has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. From 2007 to 2016, the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified insect</span> Insect that has been genetically modified

A genetically modified (GM) insect is an insect that has been genetically modified, either through mutagenesis, or more precise processes of transgenesis, or cisgenesis. Motivations for using GM insects include biological research purposes and genetic pest management. Genetic pest management capitalizes on recent advances in biotechnology and the growing repertoire of sequenced genomes in order to control pest populations, including insects. Insect genomes can be found in genetic databases such as NCBI, and databases more specific to insects such as FlyBase, VectorBase, and BeetleBase. There is an ongoing initiative started in 2011 to sequence the genomes of 5,000 insects and other arthropods called the i5k. Some Lepidoptera have been genetically modified in nature by the wasp bracovirus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2007 Yap Islands Zika virus outbreak</span> Disease outbreak in the Federated States of Micronesia

The 2007 Yap Islands Zika virus outbreak represented the first time Zika virus had been detected outside Africa and Asia. It occurred in the Yap Islands, an island chain in the Federated States of Micronesia. Zika virus (ZIKV) is a vector-borne flavivirus in the same family as yellow fever, dengue, West Nile and Japanese encephalitis viruses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lethal ovitrap</span> Mosquito-killing trap

A lethal ovitrap is a device which attracts gravid female container-breeding mosquitoes and kills them. The traps halt the insect's life cycle by killing adult insects and stopping reproduction. The original use of ovitraps was to monitor the spread and density of Aedes and other container-breeding mosquito populations by collecting eggs which could be counted, or hatched to identify the types of insects. Since its conception, researchers found that adding lethal substances to the ovitraps could control the populations of these targeted species. These traps are called lethal ovitraps. They primarily target Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, which are the main vectors of dengue fever, Zika virus, west Nile virus, yellow fever, and chikungunya.

Aedes africanus is a species of mosquito that is found on the continent of Africa with the exclusion of Madagascar. Aedes aegypti and Aedes africanus are the two main yellow fever vector species in Zambia. Aedes africanus is mainly found in tropical forests not near wetlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2015–16 Zika virus epidemic</span> Widespread epidemic of Zika fever

An epidemic of Zika fever, caused by Zika virus, began in Brazil and affected other countries in the Americas from April 2015 to November 2016. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the end of the epidemic in November 2016, but noted that the virus still represents "a highly significant and long term problem". It is estimated that 1.5 million people were infected by Zika virus in Brazil, with over 3,500 cases of infant microcephaly reported between October 2015 and January 2016. The epidemic also affected other parts of South and North America, as well as several islands in the Pacific.

Genetic incompatibility describes the process by which mating yields offspring that are nonviable, prone to disease, or genetically defective in some way. In nature, animals can ill afford to devote costly resources for little or no reward, ergo, mating strategies have evolved to allow females to choose or otherwise determine mates which are more likely to result in viable offspring.

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