Pacification of Somalia

Pacification of Italian Somalia
Date 1900-1927 [1] Location Horn of Africa, Italian Somaliland Result Italian victory
Belligerents
Kingdom of Italy Italian Somaliland	Majeerteen Sultanate Sultanate of Hobyo Southern Islamic movements Dervish Movement
Commanders and leaders
Maria De Vecchi	Osman Mohamoud Ali Yusuf Kenadid Sheikh Hassan Barsane
Strength
6 Banaadir battalions, 3 Eritrean battalions: [a] 12,000 men, [b] 135 artillery pieces, 3 aircraft [2]	Unknown
Casualties and losses
1000+ dead [c] and 341 wounded [2]	1,236 dead and 757 wounded [2] 15,337 rifles and 2 cannons seized [2]

The Pacification of Somalia (in Italian: Pacificazione della Somalia) was a military occupation carried by the fascist government of Italy to pacify Italian Somalia's southern tribes and northern Muslims sultanates. ^[1] After the end of the Dervish war, this event altered Italy's approach to the colony. ^[3] The fascist government ordered occupation of all Somalia by force through the Royal Corps of Colonial Troops, which led to armed resistance movements across the country. ^[4]

History of the sultanates in the region

Throughout the 19th century, the western part of the Horn of Africa was composed of many independent sultanates, including the Sultanate of Hobyo (in Italian: Sultanato di Obbia), the Majeerteen Sultanate (in Italian: Sultanato della Migiurtina), the Hiraab Imamate (in Italian: Imamato di Hirab) and the Sultanate of Geledi (in Italian: Sultanato di Geledi). ^[5] Particularly, the late 19th century had a huge impact in the Horn of Africa. The Somali Sultans that then controlled the region, such as Yusuf Ali Kenadid, Osman Mahamuud, Ahmed Yusuf, and Olol Dinle opened themselves to protection treaties ^[6] with one some of the European colonial powers, including Italy. These treaties allowed European powers to gain allies and, gradually, protectorates.

History

First treaties and protectorates

Italian ships sailing in the Suez Canal in 1885

After the Egyptian withdrawal from the Horn of Africa, the Italians negotiated with the British and got themselves a protectorate over the port of Massaua (in Eritrea). This was officially the start of Italy's colonial ambitions.^{[ citation needed ]}

At the end of 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid had in fact negotiated with the Italians, making his Sultanate of Hobyo the first Italian protectorate in Somalia. The following year, Osman Mahamuud signed a similar agreement for his Majeerteen Sultanate, allowing it to be another Italian protectorate. Both rulers had signed the protectorate treaties to further their own expansionist goals: Kenadid sought to use Italy's support in his dispute with the Sultanate of Zanzibar over the control of the village of Uarsciek, as well as in his ongoing power struggle with Boqor Osman himself. Both Kenadid and his rival Osman hoped to exploit the conflicting interests between the European imperial powers that were trying to take control of the Horn of Africa, while avoiding direct occupation of their territories. ^[7] The Italians, instead, were interested in the colonies in Somalia mainly because of its ports, which could grant them access to the strategically important Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aden. ^[8]

War of 1887-1889

Main article: Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889

Between 1887 and 1889 Italian and Ethiopian (Abyssinian) forces clashed several times for the control of Eritrea. Despite the many battles lost by the Italians, even tho they inflicted many casualties on the Ethiopians, they besieged Saati and established Italian Eritrea. ^[9] Minister, Agostino Depretis, died shortly after the defeat in Dogali in July 1887 and was replaced by Francesco Crispi. On 2 May 1889, the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II and Italy signed the Treaty of Wuchale, ending the war as a compromise. ^[10]

Coastal possessions until 1920

Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi

A hotel in Villabruzzi

After more treaties, Italy gained control of the ports of the Benadir coastal area from the Somalis and its Sultan, and over the following decades, Italian power over the settlement was strengthened and, in 1905, Italy assumed the responsibility of colonizing parts in southern Somalia. ^{[11] [12]} The administrative regulator, at that time, was Governor Mercantelli, who divided the colony into the six regions of Brava, Merca, Lugh, Itala, Bardera, and Jumbo. ^[13]

1911 map showing the situation in Somalia

On 5 April 1908, the Italian Parliament enacted a basic law to unite all of the parts of southern Somalia into an area called Somalia Italiana. This system controlled export rights, regulated the rate of exchange, raised or lowered native taxes, and administered all civil services and matters relating to hunting, fishing, and conservation. ^[14] The governor of Somalia Italiana was also in control of the police force, while nominating local residents and military arrangements. ^[14]

From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops (in Italian: Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers but, ^[13] between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis (Dubats) from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers during the Italo-Turkish War and the First and Second Ethiopian wars. ^{[15] [16]} Effective Italian control in Somalia remained largely limited to the coastal areas until the early 1920s, when the Pacification of the Inner lands began. ^[17]

Dervish wars

Somaliland campaign, The first years of the Pacification campaign (1889–1900) were "fought" peacefully: using protective treaties, Italy managed to get many protectorates over Somalia. However, after the Italian intervention in the Anglo-Dervish War, between 1903 and 1904, the relationship between Hobyo and Italy worsened. ^{[18] [7]} Viewed as too much of a threat by the Italians, Kenadid was exiled first to the British-controlled Aden Protectorate, and then to Italian Eritrea ^[19]

Somali dubat camel troops under Italian Colonel Camillo Bechi's command

Battle of Eyl

On 21 April 1904, a Royal Naval detachment, reinforced by three companies of the Royal Hampshire Regiment, stormed and captured the forts at Eyl, supported by the Italians. In this attack, the British lost 3 men killed and 11 wounded, and the Dervishes 58 killed and 14 wounded, ^[20] while the naval detachment remained ashore for four days, assisted by an Italian naval detachment that arrived on 22 April. ^[21] Having defeated his forces in the field and forced his retreat, the British "offered the Mullah safe conduct into permanent exile at Mecca", but he did not reply.

Conquest of Nugaal

In 1905, following the Ilig Treaty, the Dervish movement under Mohammed Abdullah Hassan was granted control of the Nugaal Valley as part of a negotiated agreement with the Italian authorities. The Dervishes established a strong presence in the region, constructing forts and using Nugaal as a strategic base to coordinate operations across British and Italian Somaliland.

Over the following years, the Dervish movement consolidated its hold over Nugaal with the support of local Dhulbahante clans. However, by 1911, pressure from rival Somali groups and disrupted supply lines forced the Dervishes to withdraw from the valley and relocate to the Hawd region.

Battle of Agaarweyne

In August 1913, the Dervish forces launched a surprise attack on a British-led column at Agaarweyne, near Dul Madoba, in northern Somaliland. The British force, made up of the Somaliland Camel Constabulary and allied clan levies, was ambushed by a Dervish force under Mohammed Abdullah Hassan. The fighting resulted in a decisive Dervish victory, with over 50 British and allied soldiers killed, including their commander, Colonel Richard Corfield. The success of the Dervishes at Agaarweyne was a major blow to British colonial prestige and briefly allowed the movement to regain momentum in the region.

Battle of Hiraan

On 3 March 1913, the Dervish movement clashed with the Italian colonial army around Beledweyne in the Hiraan region of Italian Somaliland. A Dervish force of approximately 900 men, led by Mohamed Abdullah Hassan and commanders including Isman Boos and Ismail Mire, successfully resisted the Italian offensive.

The Italians launched a three and a‑half day siege, deploying artillery and infantry attacks against sturdily built forts around Beledweyne. Despite the sustained bombardment, the Dervish defenders assisted by strong engineering under Cali Jalax prevented major damage to their fortifications, while Ismail Mire later commemorated the resistance in oral poetry.

The Italians ultimately abandoned their advance, retreating from the area. This retreat effectively ceded control of Hiraan to the Dervish movement, which later fortified its position by building new forts in the region. Italian forces never launched another southern offensive, enabling the Dervishes to maintain authority over much of southern Somalia during the First World War.

Battle of buluburte

Between 1915 and 1918 the Dervishes remained essentially on the defensive, conducting only small-scale raids and actions; In February 1915, an offensive by the reconstituted British Somaliland Camel Corps led to the capture of the Dervish fortifications set up on Mount Shimbiris and other smaller positions, forcing the Mullah to retreat his western line of resistance to the vicinity of his stronghold of Taleh. ^[22] Further south, Dervish columns conducted raids into Italian-controlled territories in February 1916, but were stopped by the garrisons of Bulo Burti and Tiyeglow; on the following 27 March, thanks to the betrayal of some Somali irregulars hired into the service of the Italians, the dervishes took and sacked the fort of Bulo Burti, but were then repelled by a punitive expedition led by Colonel Bessone's Askari. ^[23]

Benadir resistance

Banadir resistance

The Banadir resistance was an anti colonial campaign led by the Bimaal, Wa’dan, and other coastal Somali people against Italian forces in southern Somalia from the 1890s to the early 1920s. It began after the killing of Italian official Antonio Cecchi at Lafoole in 1896, which triggered reprisals and a wider revolt centered around Merca and the Shabelle valley.

The Bimaal clan launched coordinated attacks on Italian garrisons and trade routes, including the siege of Merca and a major assault at Turunley in 1907. In July 1908, Bimaal forces achieved a decisive victory at Finlow, inflicting heavy losses on Italian troops.

Led by figures such as Sheikh Abdi Abikar Gaafle and Ma’alin Mursal Abdi Yusuf, the resistance took on a religious tone and received encouragement from the northern Dervish movement. Though Italy eventually occupied the region, resistance persisted into the 1920s and remains one of the longest Somali struggles against colonial rule.

Sultanate of hobyo resistance

Omar Samatar's Rebellion

Though victorious against the sultan's forces, the populace had yet to accept Italian rule without a fight. Commissioner Trivulzio, assigned with administering Hobyo, reported the movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before and after the annexation. As preparations were underway to continue the Corpo Zaptié's advance into Majeerteen, a new threat emerged. One of Sultan Ali Yusuf's commanders, Omar Samatar, attacked and captured El Buur on 9 November 1925. The local populace sided with Omar, and soon enough the Italians had a full-scale revolution on their hands after Omar followed up his previous success with the capture of El-Dhere. The Corpo Zaptié tried and failed to recapture El-Bur from Omar. By 15 November the Italians had fled to Bud Bud, ambushed by partisans the whole way and rather diminished in forces and resolve.^{[ citation needed ]}

A third attempt was planned, but before it could be executed the commander of the operation, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed and killed between Bud Bud and Bula Barde. Italian morale hit rock bottom, and Hobyo seemed a lost cause as Omar stood poised to reconquer Hobyo itself. In an attempt to salvage the situation, governor De Vecchi requested two battalions from Eritrea and assumed personal command. The rebellion soon spilled over the borders into the Benadir and Western Somaliland, and Omar grew increasingly powerful. The disaster in Hobyo shocked Italian policymakers in Rome. Blame soon fell on Governor De Vecchi, whose perceived incompetence was blamed for Omar's rise. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the Eritrean battalions was to assume the military command and De Vecchi was confined to Mogadishu and limited to an administrative role. The commander was to report directly to Rome, bypassing De Vecchi entirely. ^[1]

As the situation was extremely confused, De Vecchi took former Sultan Ali Yusuf with him to Mogadishu. Mussolini vowed to reconquer all of Hobyo and move on to Majertin by any means necessary. Even reinstating Ali Yusuf was considered. However, the clans had already sided with Omar Samatar, so this was not as viable an option as it would appear. Before the reinforcements arrived, De Vecchi chose the age old tactic of divide and rule, and offered great rewards, money and prestige to any clans who chose to support the Italians. Considering the eons-old clan rivalries which have been the bane of Somali states from time immemorial, it is a wonder this strategy hadn't been attempted sooner, and turned out to be far more successful than the Eritrean regiments in reversing the rebellion. With the steam taken out of the rebellion, and the military forces heavily reinforced with the battalions from Eritrea, the Italians retook El-Buur on 26 December 1925, and compelled Omar Samatar to retreat into Western Somaliland. ^{[3] [4]}

The Cumar-Samatar Secondary School in central Galkacyo is named after Omar Samatar in remembrance of his struggles and sacrifices. ^[24]

Aftermath

The Italian Goverment eventually conquered and merged many sultanates and british protectorates (British Jubaland) to form Italian Somaliland. Mussolini who first criticised Maria De Vecchi heavy handed tactics which claimed the deaths of a few somalis, realised that the Pacification of somalia offered great potential for regional expensive. ^[25] However, instability persisted throughout the years. ^[26]

Notes

1. The number of Eritrean battalions was reduced to 2 during the few last months of the Pacification campaign.
2. Including 3,000 dubats, 2,500 tribal irregulars and 500 Zaptié.
3. 3 officers, 4 metropolitan soldiers, 97 askari and 449 dubats.

References

1. Livio Ciancarella (2020). Somalia - Compendio storico (PDF) (in Italian). Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito.
2. "27 febbraio 1927. In Somalia si concludono le operazioni per la pacificazione dei sultanati". italiacoloniale.com. 27 February 2023.
3. Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013-02-20). The History of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN   979-8-216-09799-0.
4. Yuusuf, Muuse (2021-05-20). The Genesis of the Civil War in Somalia: The Impact of Foreign Military Intervention on the Conflict. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN   978-0-7556-2710-3.
5. Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia, p 12-13
6. Mariam Arif Gassem, Somalia: clan vs. nation (s.n.: 2002), p.4
7. Issa-Salwe (1996), 34–35.
8. Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia (New York: Nova Science, 2002), p 33
9. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Abyssinia"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94.
10. Sarkees & Wayman (2010), p. 262: "The conclusion of the war is coded as a compromise because Italy failed to defeat Ethiopia but was able to withdraw effectively while maintaining its colony in Eritrea". sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSarkeesWayman2010 (help)
11. Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia Chicago: University of Chicago P, 1966. p 101
12. Cassanelli, Lee V. The End of slavery in Africa, Meiers, Suzanne and Roberts, Richard L., eds, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 310
13. Robert L. Hess (1966). Italian colonialism in Somalia. University of Chicago Press. p. 101. ISBN   9780317113112.
14. Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism, p 102
15. W. Mitchell. Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard, Volume 57, Issue 2. p. 997.
16. William James Makin (1935). War Over Ethiopia. p. 227.
17. Ben-Ghiat, p. 310
18. Omar, Mohamed (2001). The Scramble in the Horn of Africa. p. 402. This letter is sent by all the Dervishes, the Amir, and all the Dolbahanta to the Ruler of Berbera ... We are a Government, we have a Sultan, an Amir, and Chiefs, and subjects ... (reply) In his last letter the Mullah pretends to speak in the name of the Dervishes, their Amir (himself), and the Dolbahanta tribes. This letter shows his object is to establish himself as the Ruler of the Dolbahanta
19. Sheik-ʻAbdi (1993), 129
20. Lane (June 2020), 152-156
21. Cunliffe-Owen (1905), 179–82 ("Appendix A").
22. Angelo del Boca, page 856.
23. Angelo del Boca, page 857.
24. Ben-Ghiat, Ruth, Italy and its colonies, in A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: continental Europe and Africa, Poddar, Prem, Patke, Rejeev S. and Jensen, Lars eds., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008, p. 310
25. Mallett, Robert (2018-11-29). Mussolini in Ethiopia, 1919–1935: The Origins of Fascist Italy's African War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-316-36865-7.
26. Donati, Sabina (2013-06-26). A Political History of National Citizenship and Identity in Italy, 1861–1950. Stanford University Press. ISBN   978-0-8047-8733-8.