Paula Fredriksen

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Paula Fredriksen

Paula Fredriksen (born January 6, 1951, Kingston, Rhode Island) [1] is an American historian and scholar of early Christianity. She held the position of William Goodwin Aurelio Professor of Scripture at Boston University from 1990 to 2010. [2] Now emerita, she has been distinguished visiting professor in the Department of Comparative Religion at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, since 2009. [3]

Contents

Fredriksen specializes in the history of Christianity in that developmental arc from its stirrings in an apocalyptic messianic sect within Second Temple Judaism to its transformation into an arm of Late Roman imperial government and its empowerment in the post-Roman West (1st through 7th centuries). She works to reconstruct the many ways that various ancient Mediterranean peoples – pagans, Jews and Christians – interacted with the many special social agents (e.g. high gods, apocalyptic forces, heavenly bodies, godlings, spirits, and divine humans) that populated both the ancient flat-disced Earth and geo-centric universe. [2]

Fredriksen served as an historical consultant and featured speaker in many media, including for the BBC production The Lives of Jesus (1996) and for U.S. News & World Report 's "The Life and Times of Jesus". [4] Fredriksen's book From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the Early Images of Jesus served as a template for the Frontline documentary From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians. [5]

Fredriksen was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2013. [6] [7] She is a former Catholic who converted to Judaism. [8]

Education

Fredriksen studied for a double B.A. in Religion and History at Wellesley College, from which she graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1973. After a year of formal theological study at St. Hilda's College, she received a diploma in theology from Oxford University in 1974. [9]

Fredriksen earned her Ph.D. in the History of Religion from Princeton University in 1979. [9] From Fall 1979 to 1980, she was an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow in the Religion Department at Stanford University. [9] Both Wellesley College (in 1989) and Princeton University (in 2000) deemed Fredriksen a “distinguished alumna.” [10] [11] [12]

Career

Fredriksen began her career as a lecturer at the Department of Religion of Princeton University in 1978. From 1979 to 1980, she was a faculty member at the department of religious studies at Stanford University. She relocated to the University of California, Berkeley where, from 1980 to 1986, she was an assistant professor in the department of history and, from 1986 to 1989, worked as an associate professor in the department of religious studies of the University of Pittsburgh. From 1990 to 2010, Fredriksen was the William Goodwin Aurelio Professor of Scripture at Boston University. [2]

Fredriksen was named distinguished visiting professor in the Department of Comparative Religion at Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2009. [13] In April 2013, she was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences (AAAS). [14] [7]

She holds honorary doctorates from Iona College (2008), [15] Lund University in Sweden (2017), [13] and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2018). [16] [17]

Scholarship

Jesus

Fredriksen views ancient Christianity from two vantage points: that of late Second Temple Judaism (roughly 200 BCE to 70 CE) and that of the late Latin West (especially from the late fourth to the mid-fifth century CE). [18] For the entire spread of these centuries, Fredriksen says, the vast majority of people worshiped their own particular gods—a great variety of cults and customs lumped together by scholarly convention as "paganism." Fredriksen emphasizes that different forms of Judaism developed within the larger matrix of Graeco-Roman paganism; and that different forms of Christianity developed within different types of Judaism and of paganism. [19] Context affects content: all these cultures mutually influenced each other.

Late Second Temple Judaism, whether in the Jewish homeland or in the Diaspora, provided the cradle of the early Christ-movements. [20] Two figures dominate their development and thus Fredriksen's research of the period: that of Jesus of Nazareth, and that of his apostle, Paul. [21] Despite the many cultural and social differences distinguishing Jesus and Paul—language (Aramaic/Greek), location (Jewish territories and Jerusalem/Diaspora) and audiences (Jews/pagans)—these two men stood united in a single conviction. Both taught that the God of Israel would overwhelm evil, raise the dead, and establish his reign of eternal peace and justice, within their own lifetimes. [21] In short, in line with the work of Albert Schweitzer (for Jesus and for Paul) and of Krister Stendahl (for Paul), Fredriksen holds that both Jesus and Paul were apocalyptic thinkers. [21] [22]

In From Jesus to Christ, Fredriksen explored the images of Jesus presented in Paul's letters and in the four gospels as these altered and adjusted once the movement spread abroad in the Diaspora and outgrew its own foundational prophecy: “The Kingdom of God is at hand!” (Mark 1.15). [23] [24] In Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews, she concentrated instead on reconstructing the historical figure himself. [25] Turning to the chronology of John's gospel (wherein Jesus has a three-year mission, centered in Jerusalem) rather than that of Mark, Matthew and Luke (which locate Jesus primarily in Galilee, with a single, and fatal, trip to Jerusalem), Fredriksen answered the question why Jesus was crucified but his followers were not. [26] Pilate and the chief priests were familiar with Jesus' apocalyptic message—God, not human armies, would establish his Kingdom—and so knew that Jesus was, in every practical way, politically and militarily harmless. [27]

But on what proved to be his final trip to the city for Passover, crowds in the pilgrim-swollen city began proclaiming Jesus as messiah. [28] This was cause for alarm for, as Josephus wrote, it was "on these festive occasions that sedition is most apt to break out." [25] Working in concert with the temple police (John 18.3), Pilate arrested Jesus and crucified him as "King of the Jews," disabusing the crowds of their enthusiasm. [27] It was the crowds, not Jesus himself, Fredriksen concludes, who threatened the city's stability. [27] This theory explains as well why the original community could resettle permanently in Jerusalem, largely without incident, for the remaining four decades of the city's lifetime. [27]

Paul

Fredriksen's many articles on Paul [29] and his cameo appearances in her books on Jesus and on Augustine come together in her book Paul: The Pagans' Apostle. [21] Fredriksen explains there that Paul lived in a world full of gods. [30] As Christ's apostle, Paul taught that pagans did not have to become Jews (for men, meaning circumcision). [30] But they did have to commit to worshiping Israel's god alone, he insisted, and to live according to some—not all—Jewish law. [30]

Following especially the broad lines of interpretation laid down by Albert Schweitzer and by Krister Stendahl, Fredriksen asserts that Paul believed that he lived and worked in history's final hour. [21] Paul was convinced that he knew the time on God's clock because of his experience of the Risen Christ: resurrection itself, according to apocalyptic Jewish convictions, would signal the time of the End. [21] In the brief meanwhile, between Christ's first and final advents, Paul worked to turn pagans from their gods to his god. [30]

Paul's seven undisputed letters date to the 50s of the first century. [31] They are the only evidence of the Christ movement that predates the Roman destruction of Jerusalem's temple (in 70 CE). [21] But Jesus died around the year 30 CE. This passage of time after the death of Jesus, according to Fredriksen, means that, by the time that the earliest stratum of tradition appears—namely, in Paul's letters—the Kingdom of God was already late. [21] In the Diaspora, the movement fractured into competing missions over the question of how to integrate ex-pagan gentiles into its communities. [30] Some apostles taught that ex-pagan males needed to enter Israel's covenant with God through circumcision, that is, full conversion to Judaism. [30] Paul furiously disagreed, Fredriksen emphasizes. Against his circumcising competitors, he argued that the presence of Christ's spirit or of holy spirit within these gentile communities attested to their "adoption" into God's family: Christ-following ex-pagans, insists Paul, are now Israel's brothers" ( adelphoi ), adopted via Christ into the family of Abraham. [32] [33]

Paul thought not that gentiles should not become Jews, but that they could not become Jews: covenantal circumcision, he insisted, occurs only on the eighth day of the male infant's life (Philippians 3.5). [30] [21] Jewish circumcision for adult gentile males, in view of Jewish law, was thus "nothing" (1 Corinthians 7.19). His letters, all addressed to gentile communities, argue vehemently against his circumcising competitors. [30] By the late first- early second century, this generation long dead, Paul's intra-Jewish arguments will be interpreted by gentile readers as anti-Jewish arguments. [30] In this way, Fredriksen shows, Paul's letters became a wellspring for nineteen centuries of Christian anti-Judaism and antisemitism. [30]

Fredriksen thus contributes to a new school of New Testament scholarship, "Paul within Judaism." [34] Believing that the Kingdom would arrive in his own lifetime, Paul had no intention of starting a new religion—much less an anti-Jewish religion. [30] But Paul does acknowledge the existence "of many gods and many lords" (1 Corinthians 8.5: "lord" is a common designation for a Mediterranean god): they are Christ's cosmic opposition. [33] [35] Paul, thus, should be understood not only within Judaism, urges Fredriksen. [30] As a late Second Temple Diaspora Jew, the apocalyptic Paul also stands "within paganism." It was these pagan superhuman powers, taught Paul, whom Christ will defeat when he returns in glory as God's Davidic champion. [18]

Augustine

Through Krister Stendahl's classic article, “Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West,” Fredriksen first made the acquaintance of the mid-first century Paul and of Paul's greatest western interpreter, Augustine of Hippo. [36] [37] Augustine's Paul, in late Latin translation, was the source of Augustine's signature teachings on human will, divine grace, original sin, and predestination. [38] As he struggled particularly with Paul's letter to the Romans, Augustine redefined "free will." [38] Human moral agency, he now argued, was in a state of diminished capacity, which was the just penalty of Adam's sin, inherited across generations. [38] In Augustine on Romans (1982), the first English translation of two of his early works on Paul's epistle, Fredriksen charted Augustine's evolving struggles with this nexus of issues. [39] These commentaries on Romans were the prelude to Augustine's master work, the Confessions. [40]

Fredriksen continued to consider and to contrast the first-century Jewish Paul and the late fourth-century Augustinian Paul together. She compared scholarly assessments of their respective "conversions." [41] She analyzed both men's ideas on flesh and resurrection. [42] She measured the distance between their respective ideas on the destiny of Israel. [43] She traced Augustine's weaponization of Paul against Pelagius. [44] She explored the similarities and differences between them on such issues as sin, salvation, and God. [45] [46] Fredriksen also brought Augustine into conversation with other ancient theologians: with Tyconius (on Christian millenarianism); [47] [48] with Origen (on Paul and Jewish Law; on sin and salvation); [49] and with Isidore of Seville (on Jews). [50]

Augustine surprised Fredriksen, however, once she began to investigate how the idea of "Jews" shaped his theology. [51] By Augustine's lifetime (354-430 CE), Jews had long figured as the negative contrast to gentile Christianity. Indeed, Augustine himself deployed standard anti-Jewish rhetoric against his Christian rivals, the Donatists: Jews might be "bad," but the Donatists, he observed, were even worse. [52] [53] But against the anti-Judaism of his former religion, Manichaeism, Augustine thought outside the box. He taught that Jesus, the original apostles, and Paul himself, even after Damascus, had all continued to live according to the Jewish interpretation of Jewish law. [54] The Jews' continuing existence, he insisted, was of benefit to the church, because through them, the texts of the Bible had penetrated the known world. Most dramatically, Augustine urged that the Jews had no less a protector than God himself, who would punish any ruler, whether pagan or Christian, who tried to inhibit them from living Jewish lives. [55] In advocating for an historical understanding of Christianity, in other words, Augustine framed, as well, a principled Christian theological defense of Jews and of Judaism. Dismally negative as his traditional anti-Jewish rhetoric was, his positive ideology, Fredriksen concludes, was original, daring, and unique. Augustine's singular teaching would survive the collapse of the western Roman Empire, ultimately saving Jewish lives in the course of medieval crusades. [38] [56]

Publications

In 1982, Fredriksen published Augustine on Romans, a Latin edition with facing translation of Augustine's two early efforts with Paul's epistle to the Romans. [57] These two exercises in biblical interpretation prepared Augustine, within four years, to frame his signature masterpiece, the Confessions.

In 1988, Fredriksen published From Jesus to Christ, which traces the first-century growth of various images of Jesus. The book won the 1988 Yale University Press Governors’ Award for Best Book.

In 1999, Fredriksen published Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews on the historical Jesus. The book won a National Jewish Book Award. [2] [58] In 2000, Boston University named it a best faculty book.

In 2004 she published a critical review of the Mel Gibson film The Passion of the Christ , which she expanded upon in her 2006 book On ‘The Passion of the Christ’: Exploring the Issues Raised by the Controversial Movie. [59] [60] [8]

In 2008, Fredriksen published Augustine and the Jews (second edition Yale 2010), [61] which situates Augustine's teachings about Jews and Judaism within their contemporary context of Christian anti-Judaism and the imperial church's exercise of coercive force against religious minorities. [62] [63]

In 2012, Fredriksen published Sin: The Early History of an Idea, which explored how views about humanity and about God changed in the centuries between John the Baptist and Augustine of Hippo. [64] [65] The book was based on Fredriksen's 2007 Spencer Trask lectures at Princeton. [66]

In 2017, Fredriksen published Paul: The Pagan's Apostle, which situates Paul within, not against, his native Judaism. [67] [68] In 2018, the book won the Prose Award for best book in religion from the American Publisher's Association. [69]

In 2018, Fredriksen published When Christians Were Jews, in which she argued for the Jewish, apocalyptic convictions of the original Christ-community in Jerusalem, the founding generation – which was convinced that it was history's final generation. [70] [71] [72]

Christian antisemitism in both its academic forms and in its popular ones led to two of Fredriksen's anthologies, Jesus, Judaism, and Christian Anti-Judaism: Reading the New Testament After the Holocaust (with Adele Reinhartz; 2002) [73] and On ‘The Passion of the Christ’ (2004; 2005, on Mel Gibson's film), [59] [60] as well as to her appreciation of David Nirenberg's foundational work on the same theme. [74] Her 2020 Shaffer Lectures at Yale, "Paul's Letters, Christian Identity, and Thinking with Jews," explored the way that anti-Judaism, in various modalities, continues to inflect the work of contemporary scholars of New Testament Studies. [75]

Together with Jesper Svartvik, she organized and edited Krister Among the Jews and Gentiles. Essays in Appreciation of the Life and Work of Krister Stendahl (2018), [76] to whom she also dedicated her book on Paul. [77]

Related Research Articles

Christianity began as a movement within Second Temple Judaism, but the two religions gradually diverged over the first few centuries of the Christian era. Today, differences of opinion vary between denominations in both religions, but the most important distinction is Christian acceptance and Jewish non-acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish tradition. Early Christianity distinguished itself by determining that observance of halakha was not necessary for non-Jewish converts to Christianity. Another major difference is the two religions' conceptions of God. Depending on the denomination followed, the Christian God is either believed to consist of three persons of one essence, with the doctrine of the incarnation of the Son in Jesus being of special importance, or like Judaism, believes in and emphasizes the Oneness of God. Judaism, however, rejects the Christian concept of God in human form. While Christianity recognizes the Hebrew Bible as part of its scriptural canon, Judaism does not recognize the Christian New Testament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paul the Apostle</span> Christian apostle and missionary

Paul, also named Saul of Tarsus, commonly known as Paul the Apostle and Saint Paul, was a Christian apostle who spread the teachings of Jesus in the first-century world. For his contributions towards the New Testament, he is generally regarded as one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, and he also founded several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe from the mid-40s to the mid-50s AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supersessionism</span> Christian opinion concerning biblical covenants

Supersessionism, also called replacement theology, is the Christian doctrine that the Christian Church has superseded the Jewish people, assuming their role as God's covenanted people, thus asserting that the New Covenant through Jesus Christ has superseded or replaced the Mosaic covenant. Supersessionists hold that the universal Church has become God's true Israel and so Christians, whether Jew or gentile, are the people of God.

Antisemitism and the New Testament is the discussion of how Christian views of Judaism in the New Testament have contributed to discrimination against Jewish people throughout history and in the present day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pauline Christianity</span> Form of Christianity developed from the doctrines of the Apostle Paul

Pauline Christianity or Pauline theology, otherwise referred to as Gentile Christianity, is the theology and form of Christianity which developed from the beliefs and doctrines espoused by the Hellenistic-Jewish Apostle Paul through his writings and those New Testament writings traditionally attributed to him. Paul's beliefs were rooted in the earliest Jewish Christianity, but they deviated from this Jewish Christianity in their emphasis on inclusion of the Gentiles into God's New Covenant and in his rejection of circumcision as an unnecessary token of upholding the Mosaic Law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Council of Jerusalem</span> First Christian synod (c. 48–50 AD)

The Council of Jerusalem or Apostolic Council is a council described in chapter 15 of the Acts of the Apostles, held in Jerusalemc. 48–50 AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish Christianity</span> Proto-Christian breakaway Jewish movement

Jewish Christians were the followers of a Jewish religious sect that emerged in Judea during the late Second Temple period. These Jews believed that Jesus was the prophesied Messiah and they continued their adherence to Jewish law. Jewish Christianity is the foundation of Early Christianity, which later developed into Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Christianity. Christianity started with Jewish eschatological expectations, and it developed into the worship of Jesus as the result of his earthly ministry, his crucifixion, and the post-crucifixion experiences of his followers. Modern scholars are engaged in an ongoing debate about the proper designation of Jesus' first followers. Many modern scholars believe that the term Jewish Christians is anachronistic given the fact that there is no consensus about the date of the birth of Christianity. Some modern scholars have suggested that the designations "Jewish believers in Jesus" and "Jewish followers of Jesus" better reflect the original context.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Judaizers</span> Faction of Jewish Christians

The Judaizers were a faction of the Jewish Christians, both of Jewish and non-Jewish origins, who regarded the Levitical laws of the Old Testament as still binding on all Christians. They tried to enforce Jewish circumcision upon the Gentile converts to early Christianity and were strenuously opposed and criticized for their behavior by the Apostle Paul, who employed many of his epistles to refute their doctrinal positions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Historical background of the New Testament</span>

Most scholars who study the historical Jesus and early Christianity believe that the canonical gospels and the life of Jesus must be viewed within their historical and cultural context, rather than purely in terms of Christian orthodoxy. They look at Second Temple Judaism, the tensions, trends, and changes in the region under the influence of Hellenism and the Roman occupation, and the Jewish factions of the time, seeing Jesus as a Jew in this environment; and the written New Testament as arising from a period of oral gospel traditions after his death.

Krister Olofson Stendahl was a Swedish theologian, New Testament scholar, and Church of Sweden Bishop of Stockholm. He also served as dean, professor, and professor emeritus at Harvard Divinity School.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dual-covenant theology</span> School of thought in Christianity

Dual-covenant or two-covenant theology is a school of thought in Christian theology regarding the relevance of the Hebrew Bible, which Christians call the Old Testament.

Anti-Judaism is a term which is used to describe a range of historic and current ideologies which are totally or partially based on opposition to Judaism, on the denial or the abrogation of the Mosaic covenant, and the replacement of Jewish people by the adherents of another religion, political theology, or way of life which is held to have superseded theirs as the "light to the nations" or God's chosen people. The opposition is maintained by the adaptation of Jewish prophecy and texts. According to David Nirenberg there have been Christian, Islamic, nationalistic, Enlightenment rationalist, and socio-economic variations of this theme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God-fearer</span> Greco-Roman sympathizers to Hellenistic Judaism

God-fearers or God-worshippers were a numerous class of Gentile sympathizers to Hellenistic Judaism that existed in the Greco-Roman world, which observed certain Jewish religious rites and traditions without becoming full converts to Judaism. The concept has precedents in the proselytes of the Hebrew Bible.

The circumcision controversy in early Christianity played an important role in Christian theology.

Christianity began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the 1st century in the Roman province of Judea, from where it spread throughout and beyond the Roman Empire.

The incident at Antioch was an Apostolic Age dispute between the apostles Paul and Peter which occurred in the city of Antioch around the middle of the first century. The primary source for the incident is Paul's Epistle to the Galatians 2:11–14. Since the 19th century figure Ferdinand Christian Baur, biblical scholars have found evidence of conflict among the leaders of early Christianity; for example, James D. G. Dunn proposes that Peter was a "bridge-man" between the opposing views of Paul and James, brother of Jesus. The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain, resulting in several Christian views on the Old Covenant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity</span> Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity

Since the 1970s, scholars have sought to place Paul the Apostle within his historical context in Second Temple Judaism. Paul's relationship to Judaism involves topics including the status of Israel's covenant with God and the role of works as a means to either gain or keep the covenant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in the 1st century</span> Christianity-related events during the 1st century

Christianity in the 1st century covers the formative history of Christianity from the start of the ministry of Jesus to the death of the last of the Twelve Apostles and is thus also known as the Apostolic Age. Early Christianity developed out of the eschatological ministry of Jesus. Subsequent to Jesus' death, his earliest followers formed an apocalyptic messianic Jewish sect during the late Second Temple period of the 1st century. Initially believing that Jesus' resurrection was the start of the end time, their beliefs soon changed in the expected Second Coming of Jesus and the start of God's Kingdom at a later point in time.

Early Christianity, otherwise called the Early Church or Paleo-Christianity, describes the historical era of the Christian religion up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Christianity spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish diaspora throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. The first followers of Christianity were Jews who had converted to the faith, i.e. Jewish Christians, as well as Phoenicians, i.e. Lebanese Christians. Early Christianity contains the Apostolic Age and is followed by, and substantially overlaps with, the Patristic era.

Second Temple Judaism is the Jewish religion as it developed during the Second Temple period, which began with the construction of the Second Temple around 516 BCE and ended with the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.

References

  1. ↑ U.S. Public Records Index Vol 1 & 2 (Provo, UT: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc.), 2010.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Paula Fredriksen » Department of Religion | Boston University". www.bu.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-09-15. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
  3. ↑ "Paula Fredriksen". en.religion.huji.ac.il. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  4. ↑ "Biographies | From Jesus To Christ - The First Christians | FRONTLINE | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  5. ↑ "From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians (Pt. 1)". PBS. Frontline. 1998.
  6. ↑ "Paula Fredriksen". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  7. 1 2 "Class IV Speaker - Paula Fredriksen". YouTube. American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 30 October 2013. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.
  8. 1 2 Biema, David Van (2008-12-07). "Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2021-06-15. A former Catholic who long ago converted to Judaism, she was one of Mel Gibson's most acerbic critics when he released his movie The Passion of the Christ.
  9. 1 2 3 "Paula Fredriksen" (PDF). Boston University. February 2019. Retrieved April 15, 2019.
  10. ↑ "Boston University Professor to Lecture on Judaism". Office of Communications. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  11. ↑ "Lecture series brings back distinguished Graduate School alumni". Princeton University. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  12. ↑ https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/2022/03/CV-06.23-short65.pdf
  13. 1 2 "2017: Paula Fredriksen & Hartmut Lehmann" . Retrieved April 15, 2019.
  14. ↑ Members of the AAAS
  15. ↑ "When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation". The Institute for Israel and Jewish Studies. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  16. ↑ "Honorary Doctorates - The Hebrew University of Jerusalem". www3.huji.ac.il. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  17. ↑ "Paula Fredriksen Receives Honorary Doctorate » Department of Religion | Blog Archive | Boston University". www.bu.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  18. 1 2 Fredriksen, Paula (2017). Paul, the pagans' apostle. New Haven. p. 178. ISBN   978-0-300-23136-6. OCLC   994882862.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2021). Matthew Calhoun, Robert; Kelhoffer, James; Rothschild, Clare K (eds.). "'Conversion' as 'Sea Change': Re-thinking A.D. Nock's Conversion". Choice, Change, and Conversion: Celebrating Arthur Darnby Nock. WUNT. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck: 93–111.
  20. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2018). When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 139–143. ISBN   978-0-300-19051-9. OCLC   1028939651.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 East, Brad (2019-06-23). "Enter Paul: On Paula Fredriksen's "Paul: The Pagans' Apostle" and "When Christians Were Jews"". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  22. ↑ Thiessen, Matthew (2020-05-26). "Paul". Syndicate. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  23. ↑ Hultgren, Arland (1990-04-01). "Paula Fredriksen: From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus". The American Historical Review.
  24. ↑ Dunn, James (1990-04-01). "Reviews: From Jesus to Christ. The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus by Paula Fredriksen". The Journal of Theological Studies. 41 (1): 203–204. doi:10.1093/jts/41.1.203 – via Oxford Academic.
  25. 1 2 Meacham, Jon (2018-03-30). "Jesus Died Only to Rise Again. Where Did the Concept of the Resurrection Come From?". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  26. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1999). Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: a Jewish life and the emergence of Christianity. New York: Knopf. ISBN   0-679-44675-3. OCLC   41326258.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Sanders, E. P. "In Quest of the Historical Jesus | by E.P. Sanders | The New York Review of Books". ISSN   0028-7504 . Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  28. ↑ Karabell, Zachary (1999-12-11). "Demystifying the Life, Death and Times of Jesus". Los Angeles Times. He was executed, she asserts, because the crowds at the Temple that year acclaimed him the Messiah who would restore Jewish rule over Judea and reestablish the kingdom of David and Solomon. To quell that, Pilate quickly arrested Jesus and had him crucified.
  29. ↑ Novenson, Matthew V. (2018). "Whither the Paul within Judaism Schule?" (PDF). Journal of the Jesus Movement in Its Jewish Settings. 5: 79–88. Fredriksen has authored a number of articles that quickly became touchstones in contemporary Pauline studies, for instance: "Judaism, the Circumcision of Gentiles, and Apocalyptic Hope"; "Judaizing the Nations: The Ritual Demands of Paul's Gospel"; and "Paul's Letter to the Romans, the Ten Commandments, and Pagan Justification by Faith."
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Stewart Lester, Olivia (2018-06-29). "Paul: The Pagans' Apostle". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  31. ↑ Berry, Jason (2019-12-24). "Shaping the early Christian church, Paul came before the Gospel writers". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
  32. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2018). "Putting Paul in His (Historical) Place: A Response to James Crossley, Margaret Mitchell, and Matthew Novenson" (PDF). Journal of the Jesus Movement in Its Jewish Setting. 5: 89–110.
  33. 1 2 Fredriksen, Paula (2018). "How Jewish Is God? Divine Ethnicity in Paul's Teology" (PDF). JBL. 1: 193–212.
  34. ↑ Charles, Ronald (2018). "Paul: The Pagans' Apostle/ by Paula Fredriksen (review)". Toronto Journal of Theology. 34 (1 ed.). University of Toronto Press: 136–137. doi:10.3138/tjt.2018-0029. S2CID   149913245. The main argument Fredriksen develops throughout is that Paul lived his life entirely within his native Judaism.
  35. ↑ Belayche, Nicole (2020). Gasparini, Valentino; Patzelt, Maik; Raja, Rubina; Rieger, Anna-Katharina; Rüpke, Jörg; Urciuoli, Emiliano (eds.). "Kyrios and Despotes: Addresses to Deities and Religious Experiences". Lived Religion in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Approaching Religious Transformations from Archaeology, History and Classics. Berlin: De Gruyter: 87–113. doi: 10.1515/9783110557596-006 . ISBN   9783110557596. S2CID   216249597.
  36. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2010). Augustine and the Jews: a Christian defense of Jews and Judaism. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 371. ISBN   978-0-300-17250-8. OCLC   757514138. Krister has served as a mentor to many of us in the field of ancient Jewish-Christian relations. His seminal 1963 article, "Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West," continues to exert a salubrious effect on modern scholarship; and much of my own work, both on Paul and Augustine, can be seen as an extended footnote to his insights in that luminous essay.
  37. ↑ MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2010). A history of Christianity: the first three thousand years. Diarmaid MacCulloch. London: Penguin. p. 319. ISBN   978-0-14-102189-8. OCLC   660635186. Augustine's impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example, Paul of Tarsus, has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Fredriksen, Paula (2010). Augustine and the Jews: a Christian defense of Jews and Judaism. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0-300-17250-8. OCLC   757514138.
  39. ↑ Biema, David Van (2008-12-07). "Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2021-06-14. Not only could I establish that he had changed his position, but I could locate this shift in his thinking very precisely, to the four-year period when he also wrote his monumental Confessions
  40. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2010). Augustine and the Jews: a Christian defense of Jews and Judaism. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. pp. 163–196. ISBN   978-0-300-17250-8. OCLC   757514138.
  41. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1986). "Paul and Augustine. Conversion Narratives, Orthodox Traditions, and the Retrospective Self" (PDF). Journal of Theological Studies. New series. 37: 3–34. doi:10.1093/jts/37.1.3.
  42. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1991). Burrows, M; Rorem, P (eds.). "Vile Bodies. Paul and Augustine on the Resurrection of the Flesh" (PDF). Biblical Interpretation in Historical Perspective. Studies in Honor of Karlfried Froehlich. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans: 73–85.
  43. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2000). Whitman, Jon (ed.). "Allegory and Reading God's Book: Paul and Augustine on the Destiny of Israel" (PDF). Interpretation and Allegory: Antiquity to the Modern Period. Leiden: Brill: 125–149. doi:10.1163/9789047400158_007. ISBN   9789047400158.
  44. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1988). "Beyond the Body/Soul Dichotomy. Augustine on Paul against the Manichees and Pelagians" (PDF). Recherches Augustiniennes. XXIII: 87–114. doi:10.1484/J.RA.5.102174.
  45. ↑ "Sin in history and Christianity | Paula Fredriksen". www.themontrealreview.com. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
  46. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2014). Sin: the early history of an idea. Princeton. ISBN   978-1-4008-4159-2. OCLC   1100697457.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  47. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1982). "Tyconius and the End of the World" (PDF). Revue des études augustiniennes. XXVIII (1–2): 59–75. doi:10.1484/J.REA.5.104443.
  48. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1991). "Apocalypse and Redemption in Early Christianity. From John of Patmos to Augustine of Hippo" (PDF). Vigiliae Christianae. 45: 151–183.
  49. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2019). Lincicum, David; Sheridan, Ruth; Stang, Charles (eds.). "Origen and Augustine on Paul and the Law". Law and Lawlessness in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. WUNT. Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck: 67–87.
  50. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2014). Yuval, Israel; Ben-Shalom, Ram (eds.). "Jewish Romans, Christian Romans, and the Post-Roman West: The Social Correlates of the contra Iudaeos Tradition" (PDF). Conflict and Religious Conversation in Latin Christendom: Studies in Honour of Ora Limor. Cultural Encounters in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. 17. Brepols: 23–53. doi:10.1484/M.CELAMA-EB.1.102008. ISBN   978-2-503-53514-2.
  51. ↑ Biema, David Van (2008-12-07). "Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2021-06-15. Back in 1993, I was reading a work of Augustine's attacking a Christian heretic. Usually when ancient orthodox Christians said terrible things about heretics, they found even worse things to say about Jews. Until 395, Augustine had not been much different, but here he was, writing about one of the flashiest heresies of his time and marshaling as arguments unbelievably positive things about Jews. As I read further, my scalp tingled. I had been working on Augustine for 20 years and I'd never seen anything like this before.
  52. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1995). "Excaecati Occulta Iustitia Dei: Augustine on Jews and Judaism". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 3 (3): 299–324. doi:10.1353/earl.0.0061. S2CID   170735555.
  53. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2018-02-13). "Augustine and "Thinking with" Jews: Rhetoric Pro- and Contra Iudaeos". Ancient Jew Review. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
  54. ↑ Carroll, James (2001). Constantine's sword: the church and the Jews: a history. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 215. ISBN   0-395-77927-8. OCLC   44727744. Fredriksen also makes the point that Augustine argued "against Jerome that both Jesus and the first generation of Jewish apostles, Paul emphatically included, were, as Christians, also Torah-observant Jews."
  55. ↑ Biema, David Van (2008-12-07). "Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2021-06-15. Augustine, in the course of arguing for Christ's incarnation — this intimate relationship between divinity and humanity — explicitly parallels it to God's relationship with the Jews. He writes that Catholics and Jews stand as one community over against pagans and heretics, that Jesus and his apostles, including Paul, lived as Torah-observant Jews for the whole of their lives. And he urges that God himself would punish any king who tried to interfere with the Jews' practice of Judaism.
  56. ↑ Grafton, Anthony (2013-10-12). "Imaginary Jews". The New Republic. ISSN   0028-6583 . Retrieved 2021-06-15. She argues that Augustine's notions about the Jews actually saved lives—during the Crusades, for example, when popes and preachers invoked them to prevent the destruction of more Jewish communities.
  57. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (1982). "Augustine on Romans: Propositions from the Epistle to the Romans; Unfinished Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans". Cambridge University Press.
  58. ↑ "Past Winners". Jewish Book Council. Retrieved 2020-01-24.
  59. 1 2 Fredrikson, Paula, "Controversial 'Passion' presents priceless opportunity for education - A toxic film delivers a dangerous, but teachable, moment", Christian Science Monitor, Feb 2, 2004.
  60. 1 2 Paula Fredriksen, On ‘The Passion of the Christ’: Exploring the Issues Raised by the Controversial Movie, University of California Press, February 1, 2006.
  61. ↑ "Augustine and the Jews: A Christian Defense of Jews and Judaism". Yale University Press. Retrieved 2021-06-23.
  62. ↑ Biema, David Van (2008-12-07). "Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  63. ↑ Brown, Peter. "A Surprise from Saint Augustine | by Peter Brown | The New York Review of Books". New York Review of Books. ISSN   0028-7504 . Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  64. ↑ Sherman, Phillip Michael (July 2013). "Sin: The Early History of an Idea – Bryn Mawr Classical Review". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  65. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula. "The Best Books on Sin | Five Books Expert Recommendations". Five Books. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
  66. ↑ "Prof. Paula Fredriksen lectures at Princeton University". www.bu.edu. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  67. ↑ Stewart Lester, Olivia (2018-06-29). "Paul: The Pagans' Apostle". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 2021-04-20. By contrast, Fredriksen reads Paul within the context of ancient Judaism. Rather than interpreting gentile inclusion in Paul as a turn from particularist Judaism to universalist Christianity, Fredriksen sees Paul in line with a stream of Jewish thought (which she labels "apocalyptic") that expected the eschatological turn of the gentiles to the Jewish God (see Isa 2:2–4, Mic 4:1, Tobit 14:5–6, Isa 66:21, etc.).
  68. ↑ Thiessen, Matthew (2020-05-26). "Paul". Syndicate. Retrieved 2021-04-20. Like Sanders's work, this is a book about a Jewish Paul, not a Paul who stands against Judaism.
  69. ↑ "2018 Award Winners". PROSE Awards. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  70. ↑ East, Brad (2019-06-23). "Enter Paul: On Paula Fredriksen's "Paul: The Pagans' Apostle" and "When Christians Were Jews"". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 2021-04-20. Two emphases drive Fredriksen's study of the early church and its premier apostle. First, that "the Jesus movement's first generation […] thought that they would be history's last generation." Indeed, "they foresaw no extended future," no centuries turned millennia of church history.
  71. ↑ Kirsch, Jonathan (2018-09-27). "Walking With the Jews Who Created Christianity". Jewish Journal. Retrieved 2021-04-20. The Jews who expected Jesus to return in apocalyptic glory during their own lifetimes died off. "The single biggest problem was that the End, stubbornly, continued not to come," the author writes, and "[t]ime continued to continue."
  72. ↑ Corke-Webster, James (2021-03-05). "Roman History". Greece & Rome. 68 (1): 135–148. doi:10.1017/S0017383520000315. ISSN   0017-3835. S2CID   232115804 – via Cambridge University Press.
  73. ↑ Deboer, Martinus C. (2004-04-01). "Jesus, Judaism and Christian Anti-Judaism: Reading the New Testament after the Holocaust Edited by Paula Frederiksen and Adele Reinhartz". Theology Today. 61 (1): 110–114. doi:10.1177/004057360406100125. ISSN   0040-5736. S2CID   220983441.
  74. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2013-12-09). "Anti-Judaism and Early Christianity". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 2021-04-20. From 700 BCE to 430 CE, all in his first 134 pages: Nirenberg's is no small achievement. And he has the broad lines of his ancient story right, his footnotes documenting the mass of patient reading that stands behind his recount of these centuries.
  75. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2020-02-19). "Christian Identity, Paul's Letters, and "Thinking with Jews"". Yale Divinity School. Shaffer Lectures. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.
  76. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula; Jesper, Svartvik (2018). Krister Among the Jews and Gentiles: Essays in Appreciation of the Life and Work of Krister Stendahl. Paulist Press. ISBN   978-1-58768-779-2.
  77. ↑ Fredriksen, Paula (2017-08-22). Paul: The Pagans' Apostle. Yale University Press. p. 178. ISBN   978-0-300-23136-6.
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