Plant-based leather, also known as vegan leather or eco-leather, is a type of material made from plant-based sources as an alternative to traditional leather, which is typically made from animal hides. Plant-based leather can be made from a variety of sources, including pineapple leaves, mushrooms, corn, apple peels, and recycled plastic. [1] The growing interest in sustainable and environmentally friendly products has led to increased demand for plant-based leather in recent years.
Apple leather, also known as AppleSkin, is a plant-based leather invented by Alberto Volcan from Bolzano, Italy. [2] Working with waste recycling company, Frumat, and manufacturer, Mabel, [3] Volcan's research on turning waste from the apple industry into usable material began in 2004. [2] The first products made with apple leather were manufactured in 2019, [3] and is most commonly used for small accessories like wallets. [2] One of the leading production companies in Apple leather is OLIVER CO, based in Bermondsey, South London; The company creates sustainable accessory such as wallets, cardholders, phone cases, etc... [4]
There are two processes that can turn apple waste into leather. The first process turns the apple waste into a pureé, which is then spread flat on a sheet and dehydrated; next the sheet is combined with polyurethane to add durability. [5] The second process turns the apple waste into a powder, which is then combined with polyurethane and coated onto a cotton and polyester backing. [5]
AppleSkin apple leather is PETA approved Vegan, USDA Biopreferred approved, and OEKO-TEX certified. Despite the name, apple leather is not entirely biodegradable. After being combined with polyurethane, the leather is only 50% plant-based. [2] However apple leather production emits less carbon dioxide (CO2) than PU leather; for every 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of apple waste used as a substitute for PU, 5.28 kilograms (11.65 pounds) of CO2 is saved. [5] The majority of the sustainability that comes from apple leather is in its consumption of waste; by repurposing part of the 4 million metric tones per year³ of waste that comes from apple peels and stalks, the process keeps the surplus from decomposing and producing methane, which contributes to climate change. [6]
Cactus leather is a plant-based leather produced from the mature leaves of the nopal (prickly-pear) cactus native to Mexico. [7] Founded by entrepreneurs Adrián López Velarde and Marte Cázarez, Desserto was the first company to manufacture cactus leather. [8] Their goal was to create a sustainable material that fit the specifications required by the industries that utilize animal and/or synthetic leather. [8] Following two years of research and development, the leather was completed in July 2019 and was first showcased in Milan, Italy in October 2019, and is now used in a variety of fashion and automotive products marking significant step towards sustainable alternatives in these industries. [9]
Cactus only needs 200 liters of water to have a growth of one kilogram of biomass, those 200 liters are absorbed by the plant from the humidity of the environment without having to irrigate the plant. The hygroscopic mechanism of the cactus absorbs C02 during night because only the environment is fresh. The plant opens its stoma capturing C02, generating oxygen and absorbing water present in the atmosphere which normally comes from the morning dew. The process of cultivating cactus leather has several steps. First, the mature pads of the cactus are harvested, cleaned, and ground down. [10] Next, the pads are dried under the sun for three to five days. [11] Then, fibers are separated from the dried pads and mixed with chemicals to form a bio-resin, [10] which is then poured over a carrier such as cotton or polyester.
Desserto cactus leather is mostly biodegradable, consisting of 92% organic carbon content [11] and has a tested durability of ten years. [8] Most steps in the cactus leather production process are also sustainable in practice; the 56656 square meter (14 acre) Desserto farm generates only 13.88 metric tonnes (15.3 tons) of carbon dioxide annually while absorbing over 7257 metric tonnes (8,000 tons) per year. [11] When harvesting the mature leaves, the cactus is not harmed, so it continues to grow. [10] The cacti do not require herbicides or pesticides. [11] Of the 200 liters (52.83 gallons) of water required to grow 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of cactus biomass, the majority is absorbed naturally from atmospheric humidity. [11]
Cork leather is a plant-based leather made from bark harvested from cork oak trees native to many parts of Europe. [12] There is little information regarding which company originally created the idea for cork leather, but current companies that produce it include Mahi Leather in Kanpur, Northern India, [12] and HZcork located in Dongguan, China [13] which produces both cork leather and cork fabrics.
The process for harvesting and manufacturing cork leather is much simpler than apple and cactus leather. First, the cork tree bark is stripped into planks, these planks are then air-dried for six months; next the boards are boiled in water and pressed into thinner sheets. [14] After this, the sheet of cork is adhered onto a fabric backing, usually cotton or polyester, with suberin, an adhesive naturally produced by the cork. [12] When extra durability is needed, the cork is bonded to the backing with polyurethane, which decreases the fabric's biodegradability. [15]
Both Mahi brand cork leather and HZcork brand leather have a sustainable production process. When done correctly, the oak is not harmed when the bark is harvested; additionally, a single cork tree will produce usable bark for over 200 years. [12] The process of turning bark into leather does not involve toxic chemicals nor does it emit pollution; cork trees also do not release harmful chemicals when burned. [16] The downside to the use of cork leather are that it is not as durable as animal leather, [16] and despite being one of the most environmentally friendly plant-based leathers, it is underutilized by fashion companies due to its unique texture. [12]
Mushroom leather is a plant-based leather made from mycelium, the vegetative filaments that make up the branches of fungi. [17] Mushroom leather was first developed in 2013 by Philip Ross and Jonas Edvard and called MYX, which was made from the waste of the oyster mushroom industry. [17] About 280 thousand square meters (3 million square feet) of mushroom leather is produced per year, at an average of $50.00 per square foot ($540.00 per square meter). [18] Current mushroom leather producers include Mylo by Bolt Threads, [19] MycoWorks, which patented their product in 2015, [20] and MuSkin. [21] Mushroom leather is primarily produced in Indonesia. [18]
Mushroom leather has one of the most complicated production processes of the plant-based leathers. First the substrate, the materials used as food for the mushroom, such as corn or any agriculture waste, [17] is put into a bag, dampened, and pasteurized; his causes the mycelium to grow and colonize the substrate for two to three weeks, at which point it is harvested. [18] The harvested mycelium is then compressed; during the compression, dyes or textures can be added to create the desired color and texture. [17]
The main bonuses of sustainability in the production of mushroom leather come from the fact that the production is closed-loop, which means that the materials needed to make the substrate can come from consumer or industry waste, and that the end product can also be repurposed as fertilizer. [17] Mylo brand mushroom leather is 80% bio based without synthetic backings or adhesives. [22] In most cases, mushroom leathers are completely biodegradable; [17] however, similar to cork leathers, when extra durability is needed, the mushroom leather is reinforced with polyurethane, which decreases its biodegradability. [18]
Pineapple leather is a plant-based leather made from the cellulose fibers of pineapple leaves. The pineapple leather, Piñatex, was developed by Carmen Hijosa and is produced by textile company Ananas Anam. [23]
To create the pineapple leather, the fibers are extracted from the leaves and felted together to produce a non-woven mat; [23] the mat is then washed, pressed, and dyed; [24] this is considered the raw Piñafelt. [25] The felt is then combined with non-biodegradable polyurethane resin for durability. [25]
Piñatex is a certified Benefit Corporation, B-Corp, meaning that the company is high in transparency, sustainability, and standards of performance. [26] Production of pineapple leather emits less carbon dioxide than the production of traditional vegan leather, as each meter (3.28 feet) of Piñatex prevents 12 kilograms (26.46 pounds) of CO2 emissions. [25] Despite the Piñafelt consisting of 100% plant-based materials, [26] the combination with polyurethane in the final stage means that Piñatex will not naturally biodegrade. [23]
Additional plant-based leathers, for which there is limited production information available, include agave [27] leather, coffee [28] leather, grape [29] leather, and olive [30] leather.
Leather is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning, or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay. The most common leathers come from cattle, sheep, goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hogs, and aquatic animals such as seals and alligators.
Mycelium is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a monokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to span thousands of acres as in Armillaria.
Coir, also called coconut fibre, is a natural fibre extracted from the outer husk of coconut, and used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes, and mattresses. Coir is the fibrous material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. Other uses of brown coir are in upholstery padding, sacking and horticulture. White coir, harvested from unripe coconuts, is used for making finer brushes, string, rope and fishing nets. It has the advantage of not sinking, so can be used in long lengths in deep water without the added weight dragging down boats and buoys.
Artificial leather, also called synthetic leather, is a material intended to substitute for leather in upholstery, clothing, footwear, and other uses where a leather-like finish is desired but the actual material is cost prohibitive or unsuitable, or for ethical concerns. Artificial leather is known under many names, including leatherette, imitation leather, faux leather, vegan leather, PU leather (polyurethane), and pleather.
Fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods, medicine, construction materials and other products. A mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi.
Bioplastics are plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, etc. Some bioplastics are obtained by processing directly from natural biopolymers including polysaccharides and proteins, while others are chemically synthesised from sugar derivatives and lipids from either plants or animals, or biologically generated by fermentation of sugars or lipids. In contrast, common plastics, such as fossil-fuel plastics are derived from petroleum or natural gas.
Wood-free paper is paper created exclusively from chemical pulp rather than mechanical pulp. Chemical pulp is normally made from pulpwood, but is not considered wood as most of the lignin is removed and separated from the cellulose fibers during processing, whereas mechanical pulp retains most of its wood components and can therefore still be described as wood. Wood-free paper is not as susceptible to yellowing as paper containing mechanical pulp. Wood-free paper offers several environmental and economic benefits, including reduced deforestation, decreased energy consumption, and improved waste management. The term Wood-free paper can be rather misleading or confusing for someone unfamiliar with the papermaking process because paper is normally made from wood pulp derived from trees and shrubs. However, wood free paper does not mean that the paper in question is not made from wood pulp but it means that the lignin in the wood fiber has been removed by a chemical process.
Mycoforestry is an ecological forest management system implemented to enhance forest ecosystems and plant communities through the introduction of mycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi. Mycoforestry is considered a type of permaculture and can be implemented as a beneficial component of an agroforestry system. Mycoforestry can enhance the yields of tree crops and produce edible mushrooms, an economically valuable product. By integrating plant-fungal associations into a forestry management system, native forests can be preserved, wood waste can be recycled back into the ecosystem, carbon sequestration can be increased, planted restoration sites are enhanced, and the sustainability of forest ecosystems are improved. Mycoforestry is an alternative to the practice of clearcutting, which removes dead wood from forests, thereby diminishing nutrient availability and reducing soil depth.
MycoBond is a low-energy material that is heat resistant and fire resistant and is biodegradable. Mycobond was discovered and developed by two Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute graduate students and National Science Foundation (NSF) assisted them in doing so.
The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR) is an autonomous organization acting as a nodal agency for basic, strategic, anticipatory and applied research on various aspects of horticulture such as fruits, vegetable, ornamental, medicinal and aromatic plants and mushrooms in India. The institute has its headquarters in Bengaluru, Karnataka, India and is a subsidiary of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, under the Ministry of Agriculture, India. It recently has been ranked 1st for the combined years 2019-20 and 2020-21 by the ICAR.
MycoWorks is a biotechnology company based in Emeryville, California that produces leather-like products using a process involving mycelium. The company was founded in 2013 by Philip Ross, Sophia Wang, and Eddie Pavlu.
Piñatex is the trade name for a non-biodegradable leather alternative made from cellulose fibres extracted from pineapple leaves, PLA, and petroleum-based resin. Piñatex was developed by Carmen Hijosa and first presented at the PhD graduate exhibition at the Royal College of Art, London. Piñatex is manufactured and distributed by Hijosa's company Ananas Anam Ltd.
Modern Meadow is an American biotechnology company that uses biofabrication to create sustainable materials. The company was co-founded by Andras Forgacs, Gabor Forgacs, Karoly Jakab and Francoise Marga in 2011, and is based in Nutley, New Jersey.
Vegan design is the use of vegan products in such contexts as interior design, fashion design, household goods and the arts. Such products are also known as "humane" or "cruelty-free" and "[do] not originate from any living creature, [are] not an animal byproduct and [are] not tested on animals".
A living building material (LBM) is a material used in construction or industrial design that behaves in a way resembling a living organism. Examples include: self-mending biocement, self-replicating concrete replacement, and mycelium-based composites for construction and packaging. Artistic projects include building components and household items.
Biopiracy is the unauthorized appropriation of knowledge and genetic resources of farming and indigenous communities by individuals or institutions seeking exclusive monopoly control through patents or intellectual property. While bioprospecting is the act of exploring natural resources for undiscovered chemical compounds with medicinal or anti-microbial properties, commercial success from bioprospecting leads to the company's attempt at protecting their intellectual property rights on indigenous medicinal plants, seeds, genetic resources, and traditional medicines.
Biofoams are biological or biologically derived foams, making up lightweight and porous cellular solids. A relatively new term, its use in academia began in the 1980s in relation to the scum that formed on activated sludge plants.
Mycelium, the fungal equivalent of roots in plants, has been identified as an ecologically friendly substitute to a litany of materials throughout different industries, including but not limited to packaging, fashion and building materials. Such substitutes present a biodegradable alternative to conventional materials.
Fungi are a common theme or working material in art. They appear in many different artworks around the world, starting as early as around 8000 BCE. Fungi appear in nearly all art forms, including literature, paintings, and graphic arts; and more recently, contemporary art, music, photography, comic books, sculptures, video games, dance, cuisine, architecture, fashion, and design. There are a few exhibitions dedicated to fungi, and even an entire museum.
Von Holzhausen is a science and research-backed material innovation company based in Los Angeles, California. The company uses plants, recycled fibers, and biodegradable materials to create sustainable materials at scale.
