Potato leafhopper

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Potato leafhopper
Empoasca fabae P1550790a.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Family: Cicadellidae
Genus: Empoasca
Species:
E. fabae
Binomial name
Empoasca fabae
(Harris, 1841)
Empoasca fabae, potato leafhopper Empoasca fabae P1550789a.jpg
Empoasca fabae, potato leafhopper
Empoasca fabae, potato leafhopper, Size: 3.3 mm Empoasca fabae P1410127a.jpg
Empoasca fabae, potato leafhopper, Size: 3.3 mm

Potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) belongs to family Cicadellidae and genus Empoasca within order Hemiptera. [1] In North America they are a serious agricultural pest. [2] Every year millions of dollars are lost from reduced crop yields and on pest management. [3] Crops that are impacted the most are potatoes, clover, beans, apples and alfalfa. [4]

Contents

Appearance

Adults have pale to iridescent green bodies with 6 or 8 white spots on their pronotum. [4] They have a distinctive white H shape mark between their head and wing base. [5] Their bodies are approximately 3 mm long and have on their front wings near its tip a crossvein. [4] Adults and nymphs move by hopping among host plants. [5] However, only adults can fly. [6]

Diet

They are able to feed and reproduce on at least 200 different plant species across twenty-six families. [1] In total herb genera represent 64% of their hosts. [7] Adults prefer to feed on the leaves and stems, while the nymphs prefer the leaves. [7] Their specialized mouth parts are able to pierce into the plant tissue and remove its sap. [8] The ability to inhabit a wide range of hosts is due to the variation in their feeding behaviors. [9]

Migration

Empoasca fabae is a seasonal migration species. [10] If they are flying at night, it takes two or three days to reach their summer destinations. [11] Research suggests that they are using winds as a passive means to help migrate. [10] The direction of the winds influence their distribution within their summer range. [10] Typically, the winds blow in a north-northeast direction towards Northern and Midwest United States. [10] Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of precipitation increases their range. [11] Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north. [11] In late summer, cold fronts start to appear sending cues for them to leave. [10] As they leave they get caught up in these fronts which carry them south to southwest to their overwintering range. [10]

Habitat and range

Winter

Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south. [10] Adults overwinter on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the Gulf of Mexico and in the Southern United States. [12] Eastern Texas and Oklahoma, Virginia, Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi, have documented populations. [12] Before migrating back to their summer range they change their hosts to herbaceous legumes then to new spring foliage of deciduous trees. [12]

Summer

Their summer range extends across the Midwest and eastern parts of Canada and the United States. [13] In Canada, they are found only in the Great Lakes region. [10] They are able to inhabit a wide range of habitats. [9] Only about 32% of individuals actually occupy croplands. [9] The remaining individuals will reside in fields, woodlands, scrublands, waste places, and parks. [9] Precipitation will deposit individuals upon plant hosts where they will quickly re-establish themselves. [14]

Development and reproduction

Diapause

Before migrating they mate and enter reproductive diapause. [12] Empoasca fabae begin to enter into reproductive dispause at the end of July. [15] The entire population remains in this state for its migration and overwintering period. [12] This diapause period ends from mid-January through February, and they begin to sexually mature. [12]

Egg laying

During the spring migration north, the majority of the individuals are females. [16] When they return if temperatures are above 10 °C they can start oviposition and populations grow and re-establish themselves. [17] Empoasca fabae arrives back to their summer ranges during April or early May depending on the location. [18]

During the summer months they can, on average, lay eggs over a span of 96 days. [19] Peak population densities occur during late May to late June. [8] Many overlapping generations appear. [8] After this their population densities begin to decline slowly. [18] Individuals have a tendency to aggregate as their populations increase. [18] At the end of the summer, individuals either die or migrate south. [20]

Eggs and hatchlings

Eggs are laid on their hosts; they are transparent and small in size. [5] Females will lay 2 or 3 eggs a day on the plant's stem and leaf veins. [21] The egg's incubation period ranges from 4 through 23 days, the hatchings are called nymphs. [19] New hatchlings are white in colour and develop their green colouring as they age. [19] The nymphs undergo five instars before becoming adults. [16] As they develop, they lose their skin and develop their wings. [5] Empoasca fabae develops into adults in 8 through 37 days. [19] Their entire lifecycle is one month long. [21]

As a pest

Hopperburn

The visually descriptive term hopperburn is used for a distinct type of damage on plants by E. fabae's feeding on its hosts. [16] As they feed their saliva mechanically injures the phloem and parenchyma cells. [2] The plant also suffers damage to its vascular cambium, and to its vascular bundles. [16] Within 24 hours of being infested, rates of photosynthesis, and transpiration are reduced, leaves accumulate starch, and transport of photoassimilates are reduced. [7]

The first symptoms of hopperburn is that a leaflet's margins start to curl up. [7] As a plant's infestation increases, its leaves cup downward, and they start to turn from green to yellow. [22] In severe infestations this leads to leaf necrosis in which the leaf margins and intervein areas turn brown. [22] Older plants completely lose their leaves. [3] Young plants display tip-wilting and will be stunted in height. [3] Plants that were damaged by stem feeding suffered more damage to their physiologies than those which were damaged by leaf eating. [7]

Research has shown that water-stressed plants increase nymph's development time. [6] This causes severe hopperburn due to the increase plant stress response. [21]

Economic impacts

Hopperburn leads to reduced plant growth and reproduction. [3] In some heavily infested fields up to 75% of the yield is lost, it depends on what stage of development the plants are in. [13] Obviously, this leads to reductions in crop yields and large economic losses. [3] For example, in 1988 the losses of alfalfa crops in Northeast United States ranged from $32-$66 per hectare. [23] The amount of crop damage is directly proportional to the population density. [13] Most crop damage comes from the future generations of the initial arrivals back to the summer range. [11]

Climate change

Research has indicated that over the last 62 years that they have been arriving back to their summer range earlier by ten days. [24] Warmer temperatures increases the time and speed of egg hatching and nymph development. [17] There is increasing concern that climate change will shift the overwintering and summer ranges more northward. [24] This will exacerbate the problem of pest management and increase economic losses. . [24]

Pest management

Usually, crop detection of E. fabae is too late as hopperburn is the first visual symptom of a major infestation. [21] Regular crop inspections with a sweep net are essential to help reduce massive economic losses. [21] Another visual cue is the death of leaves with small pits holes throughout them resulting from their eggs. [5] Host expansion is likely caused from the loss of natural resistance through extensive plant breeding. [1]

Currently, the only effective method that exists for controlling E. fabae's infestations is the heavy application of insecticides. [13] Short-lived insecticides such as carbaryl are commonly used; however they require costly reapplications. [14]

Research is indicating the possibility of being able to control populations by increasing E. fabae's natural enemies as part of pest management plan. [25] Percent mortality has been shown to be highest in individuals in younger instars. [15] Research has shown that natural resistance and pesticide use are just as effective, but neither is capable to fully contain populations. [26] To create more effective management programs and reduce pesticide use it is essential to understand their dispersion, temporal and spatial patterns. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemiptera</span> Order of insects often called true bugs

Hemiptera is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from 1 mm (0.04 in) to around 15 cm (6 in), and share a common arrangement of piercing-sucking mouthparts. The name "true bugs" is often limited to the suborder Heteroptera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glassy-winged sharpshooter</span> Species of leafhopper

The glassy-winged sharpshooter is a large leafhopper, similar to other species of sharpshooter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silverleaf whitefly</span> Species of true bug

The silverleaf whitefly is one of several species of whitefly that are currently important agricultural pests. A review in 2011 concluded that the silverleaf whitefly is actually a species complex containing at least 40 morphologically indistinguishable species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leafhopper</span> Family of insects

A leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family Cicadellidae. These minute insects, colloquially known as hoppers, are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass, shrubs, or trees. Their hind legs are modified for jumping, and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones. They undergo a partial metamorphosis, and have various host associations, varying from very generalized to very specific. Some species have a cosmopolitan distribution, or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions. Some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas. The family is distributed all over the world, and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family, with at least 20,000 described species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aster yellows</span> Plant disease

Aster yellows is a chronic, systemic plant disease caused by several bacteria called phytoplasma. The aster yellows phytoplasma (AYP) affects 300 species in 38 families of broad-leaf herbaceous plants, primarily in the aster family, as well as important cereal crops such as wheat and barley. Symptoms are variable and can include phyllody, virescence, chlorosis, stunting, and sterility of flowers. The aster leafhopper vector, Macrosteles quadrilineatus, moves the aster yellows phytoplasma from plant to plant. Its economic burden is primarily felt in the carrot crop industry, as well as the nursery industry. No cure is known for plants infected with aster yellows. Infected plants should be removed immediately to limit the continued spread of the phytoplasma to other susceptible plants. However, in agricultural settings such as carrot fields, some application of chemical insecticides has proven to minimize the rate of infection by killing the vector.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beet leafhopper</span> Species of insect

The beet leafhopper, also sometimes known as Neoaliturus tenellus, is a species of leafhopper which belongs to the family Cicadellidae in the order Hemiptera.

<i>Adelphocoris lineolatus</i> Species of true bug

Adelphocoris lineolatus, is commonly known as the Lucerne bug or the alfalfa plant bug, and belongs to the family Miridae. It is an agricultural pest causing vast amounts of damage to numerous crops, but primarily to alfalfa crops around the globe.

<i>Myzus persicae</i> Aphid of peach, potato, other crops

Myzus persicae, known as the green peach aphid, greenfly, or the peach-potato aphid, is a small green aphid belonging to the order Hemiptera. It is the most significant aphid pest of peach trees, causing decreased growth, shrivelling of the leaves and the death of various tissues. It also acts as a vector for the transport of plant viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), potato virus Y (PVY) and tobacco etch virus (TEV). Potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus can be passed to members of the nightshade/potato family (Solanaceae), and various mosaic viruses to many other food crops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common brown leafhopper</span> Species of true bug

The common brown leafhopper is one of the most common species of Australian leafhoppers with a very wide host range. It is an important vector of several viruses and phytoplasmas worldwide. In Australia, phytoplasmas vectored by O. orientalis cause a range of economically important diseases including legume little leaf, tomato big bud, lucerne witches broom, potato purple top wilt, Australian lucerne and the insect is a possible vector of Australian grapevine yellows. O. orientalis also transmits Tobacco yellow dwarf virus to beans, causing bean summer death disease and to tobacco, causing tobacco yellow dwarf disease.

<i>Orius insidiosus</i> Species of true bug

Orius insidiosus, common name the insidious flower bug, is a species of minute pirate bug, a predatory insect in the order Hemiptera. They are considered beneficial, as they feed on small pest arthropods and their eggs. They are mass-reared for use in the biological control of thrips.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black bean aphid</span> Species of true bug

The black bean aphid is a small black insect in the genus Aphis, with a broad, soft body, a member of the order Hemiptera. Other common names include blackfly, bean aphid, and beet leaf aphid. In the warmer months of the year, it is found in large numbers on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips of host plants, including various agricultural crops and many wild and ornamental plants. Both winged and wingless forms exist, and at this time of year, they are all females. They suck sap from stems and leaves and cause distortion of the shoots, stunted plants, reduced yield, and spoiled crops. This aphid also acts as a vector for viruses that cause plant disease, and the honeydew it secretes may encourage the growth of sooty mould. It breeds profusely by live birth, but its numbers are kept in check, especially in the later part of the summer, by various predatory and parasitic insects. Ants feed on the honeydew it produces, and take active steps to remove predators. It is a widely distributed pest of agricultural crops and can be controlled by chemical or biological means. In the autumn, winged forms move to different host plants, where both males and females are produced. These mate and the females lay eggs which overwinter.

<i>Empoasca decipiens</i> Species of true bug

Empoasca decipiens is a species of leafhopper belonging to the family Cicadellidae subfamily Typhlocybinae. The adults reach 3–4 millimetres (0.12–0.16 in) of length and a are homogenously green with whitish markings on its pronotum and vertex. E. decipiens is commonly referred to as the “green leafhopper” because of its colouration. The absence of clear stripes along the forewings can easily distinguish it from the similar leafhopper species E. vitis, but distinguishing it from other leafhoppers with the same colouration requires examination under a microscope. It is present in most of Europe, in the eastern Palearctic realm, in North Africa, in the Near East, and in the Afrotropical realm. Both nymphs and adults of this small insect are considered to be a very destructive pests on field crops, vegetables and greenhouse plants.

<i>Peregrinus maidis</i> Species of true bug

Peregrinus maidis, commonly known as the corn planthopper, is a species of insect in the order Hemiptera and the family Delphacidae. It is widespread throughout most tropical and subtropical regions on earth, including southern North America, South America, Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia and China. P. maidis are a commercially important pest of maize and its relatives. In addition to physical plant damage, P. maidis is the vector for several species-specific maize viruses, including maize stripe virus, maize mosaic virus and the non-pathogenic Peregrinus maidis reovirus.

Empoasca decedens is a species of leafhoppers belonging to the family Cicadellidae. This species has a small, slender body with a yellowish green coloration. Both males and females measure between 3.1 to 3.3 millimetres in length.

<i>Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale</i> Species of aphid

Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale, the rice root aphid or red rice root aphid, is a sap-sucking insect pest with a wide host range and a global distribution. As a member of the superfamily Aphidoidea, it is one of 16 species of the genus Rhopalosiphum. Adults and nymphs are soft-bodied and usually dark green with brown, red, or yellow tones. Like all aphids, reproduction is sexual and asexual, depending on the environmental conditions and host plant. Rice root aphids cause injury to external plant parts, namely the roots or stem, by feeding on plant sap and vector several important plant viruses. The hosts of this pest extend across multiple plant families with most belonging to Rosaceae, Poaceae, and Solanaceae. R. rufiabdominale is universally associated with Prunus species but also infests various field crops, greenhouse vegetables, cannabis, and other ornamental plants. While this aphid originates from east Asia, it spans nearly every continent. Dispersal is particularly widespread across the United States, India, and Australia, with crop damage documented in multiple instances, although economic losses are primarily associated with Japanese rice crops. Nonetheless, it remains a pest of serious concern due to its high mobility, discrete habitat, and adaptive plasticity, giving it the rightful reputation as a successful invader.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corn stunt disease</span> Bacterial plant disease

Corn stunt disease is a bacterial disease of corn and other grasses. Symptoms include stunted growth and leaves turning red. It is caused by the bacterium Spiroplasma kunkelii.

<i>Sitona lineatus</i> Species of beetle

Sitona lineatus, commonly known as the pea leaf weevil is a species of weevil with a Palearctic distribution. It is a common pest of beans, peas, and other plants in the family Fabaceae. Adult beetles of S. lineatus measure 3.4-5.3 mm in length. They are characterized by a series of colored scales arranged in alternating lines (striae) on the elytra; it is from this characteristic where the species gets its name lineatus meaning 'lined' or 'striped'. The head and pronotum also have fine pointed setae amongst the scales. The antennae are clubbed, pointed and preceded by 7 segments. The femora is dark, but tibiae and tarsi are red. As a member of Order Coleoptera (beetles) their forewings are modified to form hardened covers over the thorax and abdomen, with the hindwings for flight underneath.

<i>Aleurocanthus spiniferus</i> Species of true bug

Aleurocanthus spiniferus, the citrus spiny whitefly, is an important pest of citrus and tea plants. They are part of the order Hemiptera, and the family Aleyrodidae, where more than 1550 species have been described. A. spiniferus is indigenous to parts of tropical Asia, where it was first discovered in Japan. Since its discovery, it has now spread to numerous continents including Africa, Australia, America, Pacific Islands and Italy. Wherever it is found, it has become a highly destructive pest. Two populations of A. spiniferus have been found according to the plant or crop they infest: the citrus spiny whitefly, as well as the tea spiny whitefly.

Amrasca biguttula, commonly known as the cotton jassid, is a subspecies of leafhopper belonging to the subfamily Typhlocybinae of family Cicadellidae. It is a pest of cotton, okra, and other crops in southern Asia and West Africa.

<i>Erasmoneura vulnerata</i> Species of leafhopper

Erasmoneura vulnerata is a species of leafhopper native to North America. The species was found to be in Europe in 2004 where it causes significant economic damage to grapevine yards. E. vulnerata is commonly found on wild and cultivated grapes from both continents. Its Latin name translates to "wounded Erasmoneura" from its original description.

References

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  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Taylor, R., & Reling, D. (1986). Preferred Wind Direction of Long-Distance Leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) Migrants and its Relevance to the Return Migration of Small Insects. Journal of Animal Ecology55(3): 1103–1114.
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  13. 1 2 3 4 ”Medeiros, A., W, Tingey., & De Jong, W. (2004). “Mechanisms of Resistance to Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris), in Potato”. American Journal of Potato Research81(6): 431–441.
  14. 1 2 ”Van Timmeren, S., J, Wise, C, Vandervoort., & Isaacs, R. (2011). “Comparison of foliar and soil formulations of neonicotinoid insecticides for control of potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), in wine grapes.” Pest Management Science67(5): 560–567.
  15. 1 2 ” Erlandson, W., & Obrycki, J. (2015). “Population Dynamics of Empoasca fabae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Central Iowa Alfalfa Fields.” Journal of Insect Science15(1): 1-6.
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  17. 1 2 ”Sidumo, A., E, Sheilds., & Lembo, A. (2005). “Estimating the Potato Leafhopper Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) Overwintering Range and Spring Premigrant Development by Using Geographic Information System.” Journal of Economic Entomology98 (3): 757–764.
  18. 1 2 3 4 ”Bentz, J., & Townsend, A. (2004). “Spatial and temporal patterns of abundance of the potato leafhopper among red maples.” Annals of Applied Biology145(2): 157-164.
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  23. ↑ Lamp,W., Nielsen, G., & Dively, G. (1991)“Insect Pest-Induced Losses in Alfalfa: Patterns in Maryland and Implications for Management.” Journal of Economic Entomology84(2): 610-618.
  24. 1 2 3 ” Baker, M., P, Venugopal., & Lamp, W. (2015). “Climate Change and Phenology: Empoasca fabae (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Migration and Severity of Impact”. PLoS ONE10 (5): 1–12
  25. ↑ ”Erlandson, W., & Obrycki, J. (2010). “Predation of Immature and Adult Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) by Three Species of Predatory Insects.” Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society83(1): 1-6.
  26. ↑ Ghidiu, G., D, Douches., K, Flecher., & Coombs, J. (2011). “Comparing Host Plant Resistance, Engineered Resistance, and Insecticide Treatment for Control of Colorado Potato Beetle and Potato Leafhopper in Potatoes.” International Journal of Agronomy11(6): 516–523
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