Prairie restoration

Last updated
A tallgrass prairie planting in Illinois. Restored tallgrass prairie in DuPage County, Illinois.jpg
A tallgrass prairie planting in Illinois.

Prairie restoration is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural, commercial, or residential development. [1] The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion. [2]

Contents

In the United States, after the Black Hawk War had subsided in the mid-1830s, settlers from northern Europe and north east of the US made a home for themselves. [3] They plowed up the tallgrasses and wild flowers in the area. By 1849 most specie of prairie grass had disappeared to make room for crops (i.e.: soybeans, corn, etc.). [3] [4] Restored prairies and the grasses that survived the 1800 plowing represent only a fragment of the abundant verdure that once covered he midsection of North America from western Ohio to the Rockies and from southern Canada to Texas. [3] As an example, the U.S. state of Illinois alone once held over 35,000 square miles (91,000 km2) of prairie land and now just 3 square miles (7.8 km2) of that original prairie land is left. The over farming of this land as well as periods of drought and its exposure to the elements (no longer bound together by the tall grasses) was responsible for the Dust Bowls in the 1930s. [5]

Issues of erosion, and waning biodiversity have arisen in areas once populated by prairie grass species. [6] So in efforts of restoration, in Europe, when restoring previous crop land with prairie grasses, the most frequently used techniques involve: spontaneous succession, sowing seed mixtures, transfer of plant material, topsoil removal and transfer. [6] When maintaining these tall grasses, prescribed fire is a popular method. [7] It encourages taller and stronger regrowth as well as the recycling of nutrients in the soil. [8]

Although not fully able to restore the full diversity of an area, restoration efforts aid the thriving of the natural ecosystems. This is further improved by the specific reintroduction of key organisms from the native plants microbiome. [9] Prairie soil also effectively stores carbon. As carbon sinks, they work as a vital regulator of carbon in the atmosphere through carbon sequestration (withdrawal), and the carbon benefits the sustenance of diverse species in the prairie ecosystem. [10]

Purpose

Erosion

Erosion occurs when surface pressures wear away the material of the Earth’s crust. [11] Particularly with land previously dominated by prairie grasses, the loss of the tallgrass extensive fibrous root system left the soil exposed and unbound. [5] Ecologically, prairie restoration aids in conservation of earth's topsoil, which is often exposed to erosion from wind and rain (worsened by climate change's heavier and frequent rain) when prairies are plowed under to make way for new commerce. [12] Conversely, much more of the prairie lands have become the fertile fields on which cereal crops of corn, barley and wheat are grown. [13] Continued erosion reduces the long term productivity of the soil. [14]

Prairie restoration reintroduces this root system that once again binds the soil, strengthening it against water erosion through adequate water filtration. [11]

Carbon collection

Prairie soil is also useful for carbon sequestration. [15] Carbon dioxide is a heat trapping gas, and 40% of it is produced by humans and remains in the atmosphere thus worsening the effects of global warming. [16] Prairie grass collects this carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and stores it in its soil. [17] [18] When left undisturbed, the prairie soil acts as a Carbon sink, meaning it absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases. [16] [17]

Other purposes

A Coastal prairie restoration project in Texas. Coastal prairie.jpg
A Coastal prairie restoration project in Texas.

Many prairie plants are also highly resistant to drought, temperature extremes, disease, and native insect pests. [19] They are frequently used for xeriscaping projects in arid regions of the American West. [20] On a larger scale, communities and corporations are creating areas of restored prairies which in turn will store organic carbon in the soil and help maintain the biodiversity of the 3000 plus species that count on the grasslands for food and shelter. [21] Research in Walnut Creek Restoration (Iowa) on the contribution of recently converted land (from row crop to prairie grass), shows the improvement in ground water quality over the span of 10 years. [22] By changing the type of plant and quality, the issue of groundwater contamination (of unwanted chemicals, as a result of climate change and an issue of water security) can be alleviated. [23]

Micro-prairies

A restoration project of prairie lands can on a large or small scale level. [24] Backyard prairie restoration can enrich soil, combat erosion, and absorb water in excessive rainfalls. [25] An example of a backyard prairie restoration is known as a micro-prairie. [26] Micro-prairies are mini prairie habitats that typically consist of less than one acre, usually isolated and surrounded by developed or urban land. [26] These small-scale prairie habitats, offer various benefits, particularly in developed or urban areas where natural prairies may have been lost or fragmented. [26] This miniature ecosystem can provide habitat for a diversity of native plant and animal species specifically adapted to prairie environments, thus helping to sustain local biodiversity. [26] Prairie flowers are attractive to native butterflies and other pollinators. [27] These pollinators have evolved to rely on specific types of plants for their nectar and pollen needs. [28] Micro-prairies can attract native pollinators in several ways. First, they can provide a diverse array of native plants that are adapted to the local environment as a food sources for native pollinators. [27] By including a variety of native plants in a micro-prairie restoration projects, it is possible to create an attractive and beneficial habitat for these insects. Second, micro-prairies can offer specific nesting sites for native pollinators. [29] Many species of bees and other pollinators require specific types of nesting sites, such as hollow plant stems or burrows. [29] Features such as bee boxes or native grasses provide suitable nesting sites for breeding and survival. [29] Finally, micro-prairies can serve as refuge from habitat loss and pesticide use. Pollinators are highly susceptible to these threats, and by restoring small-scale prairie habitats in developed or urban areas, it is possible to create secure environments for critical insects. [29]

Additionally, micro-prairie plants contribute to carbon sequestration, which can improve water quality by absorbing and filtering pollutants, and transforming soil compositions. [26] The ability to carbon sequester is due to the deep root system of prairie grasses that can store large amounts of carbon in the soil. [30] Prairie grasses also have a high rate of biomass production, that can capture and store carbon at a fast rate. [30] Research has shown that prairie plants are also adapted to nutrient-poor soils, promote nutrient cycling, and contribute to soil organic matter which are essential for maintaining soil fertility and structure. [31] Prairie plants leaves have a large surface area that can trap airborne pollutants such as dust, pollen, and particulate matter. [32] The diverse community of microorganisms in prairie soils can break down and metabolize pollutants into less harmful ones. [33] Prairie plants can absorb pollutants such as heavy metals and excess nutrients from water and soil that might enter into an ecosystem. [32]

In general micro-prairies have been found to have a positive impact on local ecosystems and biodiversity. However, some studies have identified potential negative effects of micro-prairies under certain circumstances. For example, studies show that when non-native plant species are introduced into a micro-prairie, they can outcompete native plants and reduce biodiversity. [34] Secondly, if not properly maintained, backyard prairies can overgrow and create a fire risk. [34] Implementing a safe and regular mowing or burning schedule is a recommended management practice to avoid fire risk and excessive plant growth. [34] Lastly, standing water in a micro prairie can provide a breeding habitat for mosquitoes. [34] Proper design and maintenance of micro-prairies can prevent stagnant water from accumulating and attracting mosquitoes. [34]

In urban areas, permaculture is well-suited for reconstructing micro-prairies due to the complementary approach to system design and management. [26] Permaculture is a form of ecological engineering inspired by natural ecosystems which utilize sustainable architecture and horticulture. [26] Utilizing permaculture principles allows for the possibility to create sustainable micro-prairie systems that benefit both the environment and society in urban contexts. For example, the permaculture system emphasizes diversity in plant and animal species, that sustain a healthy ecosystem. [35] Through observing and learning from natural ecosystems, permaculture practitioners apply designs that mimic natural patterns. [35] Companion planting is another principle in permaculture, where different plants are grown together to benefit each other. [35] Furthermore, micro-prairies serve as valuable tool for education and outreach. Micro-prairies allow people to learn about prairie ecosystems and the importance of preserving and restoring native habitats responsibly.  

Types of plants

Some prominent tallgrass prairie grasses include big bluestem, indiangrass, and switchgrass. [36] Midgrass and shortgrass species include little bluestem, side oats grama, and buffalograss. [37] Many of the diverse prairie forbs (herbaceous, non-graminoid flowering plants) are structurally specialized to resist herbaceous grazers such as American bison. [37] Some have hairy leaves that may help deter the cold and prevent excessive evaporation. [38] Many of forbs contain secondary compounds that were discovered by indigenous peoples and are still used widely today. [39]

Early prairie restoration efforts tended to focus largely on a few dominant species, typically grasses, with little attention to seed source. [40] With experience, later restorers have realized the importance of obtaining a broad mix of species and using local ecotype seed. [40]

Planting and aftercare of prairie plants

In Europe, when restoring previous crop land with prairie grasses, the most frequently used techniques involve: spontaneous succession, sowing seed mixtures, transfer of plant material, topsoil removal and transfer. [41] Spontaneous succession is an effective technique when quick results are not expected and where there is high availability of propagules. [41] Sowing mixtures can be low or high diversity, referring to the variety of seeds. Low diversity mixtures are great for restoring large areas in a short amount of time. [41] High diversity mixtures (because of their cost and success rate) are used for smaller areas. [41] A mixture of large low diversity areas and small high diversity areas are good rich source patches for the spontaneous colonization of neighboring areas. [41] This allows for the possibility of continued natural restoration. [41]

Interagency Fire Crews conduct a prescribed burn on the RMA to reduce weeds, and hazardous fuels, 2014. Rocky Mountain Arsenal Prescribed Burn 2014 (16081693787).jpg
Interagency Fire Crews conduct a prescribed burn on the RMA to reduce weeds, and hazardous fuels, 2014.

Fire is a big component to the success of grasslands, large or small as it is a fire dependent ecosystem. [42] Controlled burns, with a permit, are recommended every 4–8 years (after two growth seasons) to burn away dead plants; prevent certain other plants from encroaching (such as trees) and release and recycling nutrients into the ground to encourage new growth. [8] [7] A much more wildlife habitat friendly alternative to burning every 4–8 years is to burn 1/4 to 1/8 of a tract every year. [43] [44] This will leave wildlife a home every year and still accomplish the task of burning. The Native Americans may also have used the burns to control pests such as ticks. [45] These prescribed burn motivate grasses to grow taller, produce more seed, and flower more abundantly. [7] If controlled burns are not possible, rotational mowing is recommended as a substitute. [46]

One of the newer methods available is holistic management, which uses livestock as a substitute for the keystone species such as bison. [47] Some sites have bison which supports the conservation of the species. This allows the rotational mowing to be done by animals which in turn mimics nature more closely. [48] Holistic management also can use fire as a tool, but in a more limited way and in combination with the mowing done by animals. [47] [48] [49] In parts of Central Asia, grazing is a human factor that greatly affects the progression of grasses. [50]

In 1990, in South Africa, de Lange and Boucher reported the use of smoke to promote seed germination among prairie grasses. [51] It was shown to help break dormancy of certain seeds. Since then this technique has been promoted throughout South Africa, parts of Australia and North America. [51]

Prairie contributors

Some popular prairie restoration projects have been completed and maintained by conservation departments, such as Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, located in Wilmington, Illinois. [52] This restoration project is administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and the Illinois Department of Natural Resources. [52] It sits on part of the Joliet Army Ammunition Plant, specifically on an area once contaminated from TNT manufacturing. Since 1997, the project has opened some 15,000 acres (61 km2) of restored prairie to the public. [52]

Another large restoration project finds its home on the ample area of Fermilab; a U.S. governmental atomic accelerator laboratory located in Batavia, Illinois. [53] Fermilab's 6,800 acres (28 km2) sit a top fertile farmland and the prairie restoration project consists of approximately 1,000 acres (4.0 km2) of that. [54] This project began in 1975 and continues today with the help of Fermilab employees and many community teachers, botanists and volunteers. [54]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prairie</span> Ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome

Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Temperate grassland regions include the Pampas of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, and the steppe of Ukraine, Russia and Kazakhstan. Lands typically referred to as "prairie" tend to be in North America. The term encompasses the area referred to as the Interior Lowlands of Canada, the United States, and Mexico, which includes all of the Great Plains as well as the wetter, hillier land to the east.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grassland</span> Area with vegetation dominated by grasses

A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands. They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meadow</span> Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants

A meadow is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created from cleared shrub or woodland for the production of hay, fodder, or livestock. Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed of species native to the region, with only limited human intervention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyculture</span> Growing multiple crops together in agriculture

In agriculture, polyculture is the practice of growing more than one crop species in the same space, at the same time. In doing this, polyculture attempts to mimic the diversity of natural ecosystems. Polyculture is the opposite of monoculture, in which only one plant or animal species is cultivated together. Polyculture can improve control of some pests, weeds, and diseases while reducing the need for pesticides. Intercrops of legumes with non-legumes can increase yields on low-nitrogen soils due to biological nitrogen fixation. However, polyculture can reduce crop yields due to competition between the mixed species for light, water, or nutrients. It complicates management as species have different growth rates, days to maturity, and harvest requirements: monoculture is more amenable to mechanisation. For these reasons, many farmers in large-scale agriculture continue to rely on monoculture and use crop rotation to add diversity to the system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grazing</span> Feeding livestock on forage

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to roam around and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land unsuitable for arable farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tallgrass prairie</span> Ecosystem native to central North America

The tallgrass prairie is an ecosystem native to central North America. Historically, natural and anthropogenic fire, as well as grazing by large mammals provided periodic disturbances to these ecosystems, limiting the encroachment of trees, recycling soil nutrients, and facilitating seed dispersal and germination. Prior to widespread use of the steel plow, which enabled large scale conversion to agricultural land use, tallgrass prairies extended throughout the American Midwest and smaller portions of southern central Canada, from the transitional ecotones out of eastern North American forests, west to a climatic threshold based on precipitation and soils, to the southern reaches of the Flint Hills in Oklahoma, to a transition into forest in Manitoba.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroforestry</span> Land use management system

Agroforestry is a land use management system in which combinations of trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. Agroforestry combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems. There are many benefits to agroforestry such as increasing farm profitability. In addition, agroforestry helps to preserve and protect natural resources such as controlling soil erosions, creating habitat for the wildlife, and managing animal waste. Benefits also include increased biodiversity, improved soil structure and health, reduced erosion, and carbon sequestration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary forest</span> Forest or woodland area which has re-grown after a timber harvest

A secondary forest is a forest or woodland area which has regenerated through largely natural processes after human-caused disturbances, such as timber harvest or agriculture clearing, or equivalently disruptive natural phenomena. It is distinguished from an old-growth forest, which has not recently undergone such disruption, and complex early seral forest, as well as third-growth forests that result from harvest in second growth forests. Secondary forest regrowing after timber harvest differs from forest regrowing after natural disturbances such as fire, insect infestation, or windthrow because the dead trees remain to provide nutrients, structure, and water retention after natural disturbances. Secondary forests are notably different from primary forests in their composition and biodiversity; however, they may still be helpful in providing habitat for native species, preserving watersheds, and restoring connectivity between ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat destruction</span> Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species

Habitat destruction is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby reducing biodiversity and species abundance. Habitat destruction is the leading cause of biodiversity loss. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of endangered species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Restoration ecology</span> Scientific study of renewing and restoring ecosystems

Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It is distinct from conservation and preservation in that it is an "attempt to co-design nature with nonhuman collaborators." Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change, and support local economies. The United Nations named 2021-2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire ecology</span> Study of fire in ecosystems

Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">California coastal prairie</span> Plant community in California

California coastal prairie, also known as northern coastal grassland, is a grassland plant community of California and Oregon in the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. This ecosystem is found along the Pacific Coast, from as far south as Los Angeles in Southern California to southern Oregon. It typically stretches as far inland as 100 km, and occurs at altitudes of 350 m or lower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glacial Ridge National Wildlife Refuge</span> National wildlife refuge in Minnesota, United States

Glacial Ridge National Wildlife Refuge was created on October 12, 2004, the 545th National Wildlife Refuge in the United States. Its creation was the result of cooperation between at least 30 agencies or governmental entities. The creation of the refuge was spearheaded by The Nature Conservancy, and the initial endowment of 2,300 acres (9.3 km2) of land was donated by the Conservancy. In light of its planned final size of 37,756 acres (153 km2), it is described by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as "the largest tallgrass prairie and wetland restoration project in U.S. history."

The ecology of the Great Plains is diverse, largely owing to their great size. Differences in rainfall, elevation, and latitude create a variety of habitats including short grass, mixed grass, and tall-grass prairies, and riparian ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grassland degradation</span> Environmental process

Grassland degradation, also called vegetation or steppe degradation, is a biotic disturbance in which grass struggles to grow or can no longer exist on a piece of land due to causes such as overgrazing, burrowing of small mammals, and climate change. Since the 1970s, it has been noticed to affect plains and plateaus of alpine meadows or grasslands, most notably being in the Philippines and in the Tibetan and Inner Mongolian region of China, where 2,460 km2 (950 sq mi) of grassland is degraded each year. Across the globe it is estimated that 23% of the land is degraded. It takes years and sometimes even decades, depending on what is happening to that piece of land, for a grassland to become degraded. The process is slow and gradual, but so is restoring degraded grassland. Initially only patches of grass appear to die and appear brown in nature; but the degradation process, if not addressed, can spread to many acres of land. As a result, the frequency of landslides and dust storms may increase. The degraded land's less fertile ground cannot yield crops, nor can animals graze in these fields. With a dramatic decrease in plant diversity in this ecosystem, more carbon and nitrogen may be released into the atmosphere. These results can have serious effects on humans such as displacing herders from their community; a decrease in vegetables, fruit, and meat that are regularly acquired from these fields; and a catalyzing effect on global warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regenerative agriculture</span> Conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems

Regenerative agriculture is a conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems. It focuses on topsoil regeneration, increasing biodiversity, improving the water cycle, enhancing ecosystem services, supporting biosequestration, increasing resilience to climate change, and strengthening the health and vitality of farm soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil regeneration</span>

Soil regeneration, as a particular form of ecological regeneration within the field of restoration ecology, is creating new soil and rejuvenating soil health by: minimizing the loss of topsoil, retaining more carbon than is depleted, boosting biodiversity, and maintaining proper water and nutrient cycling. This has many benefits, such as: soil sequestration of carbon in response to a growing threat of climate change, a reduced risk of soil erosion, and increased overall soil resilience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woody plant encroachment</span> Vegetation cover change

Woody plant encroachment is a natural phenomenon characterised by the increase in density of woody plants, bushes and shrubs, at the expense of the herbaceous layer, grasses and forbs. It predominantly occurs in grasslands, savannas and woodlands and can cause biome shifts from open grasslands and savannas to closed woodlands. The term bush encroachment refers to the expansion of native plants and not the spread of alien invasive species. It is thus defined by plant density, not species. Bush encroachment is often considered an ecological regime shift and can be a symptom of land degradation. The phenomenon is observed across different ecosystems and with different characteristics and intensities globally.

Landfill restoration refers to the process of covering a landfill once it has reached its maximum capacity and transforming it into usable land. This process usually consists of covering it with a top layer of soil and impermeable materials, also called capping, to ensure that vegetation could grow. Studies have shown that capping landfills promotes vegetation growth, which provides additional benefits such as reducing rainfall infiltration, decreasing and mitigating soil erosion, improving ecological diversity, and improves the visual appearance of the landfill site. Restoring landfill sites is considered essential to recuperate ecosystems, to minimize any negative impacts the site had on the environment, and to ensure that the site is safe for any future use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cemetery prairie</span> Remnant of original grassland ecosystem

Cemetery prairies are remnants of native North American prairie that survive on land set aside by settlers as burial grounds. These places were thus left unplowed and largely undisturbed, such that the cemeteries became de facto nature preserves. Natural prairie grasses are often perennial species that regrow from the roots after ruminant grazing or grassfire; plowing destroys the root system and eventually the ecosystem.

References

  1. ↑ "Restoration | Minnesota DNR". www.dnr.state.mn.us. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  2. ↑ Allison, Stuart K. (2004). "What "Do" We Mean When We Talk About Ecological Restoration?". Ecological Restoration. 22 (4): 281–286. doi:10.3368/er.22.4.281. ISSN   1543-4060. JSTOR   43442777. S2CID   84987493.
  3. 1 2 3 "Gale - Product Login". galeapps.gale.com. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  4. ↑ Faragher, John Mack (1986-01-01). Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie. Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0-300-04263-4.
  5. 1 2 "The revery alone won't do: Restoring America's prairies". Earth.com. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  6. 1 2 Török, Péter; Vida, Enikő; Deák, Balázs; Lengyel, Szabolcs; Tóthmérész, Béla (2011-10-01). "Grassland restoration on former croplands in Europe: an assessment of applicability of techniques and costs". Biodiversity and Conservation. 20 (11): 2311–2332. doi:10.1007/s10531-011-9992-4. ISSN   1572-9710. S2CID   19753537.
  7. 1 2 3 Bailey, Pamela; Marin, Chester O (February 2007). "Overview of Prairie Planting Techniques and Maintenance Requirements". ERDC Knowledge Core. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  8. 1 2 Collins, Scott L.; Wallace, Linda L. (1990). Fire in North American Tallgrass Prairies. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN   978-0-8061-2315-8.
  9. ↑ Koziol, Liz; Crews, Timothy E.; Bever, James D. (26 February 2020). "Native plant abundance, diversity, and richness increases in prairie restoration with field inoculation density of native mycorrhizal amendments". Restoration Ecology. 28 (S4). doi:10.1111/rec.13151. ISSN   1061-2971. S2CID   214521305.
  10. ↑ DeLuca, Thomas H; Zabinski, Catherine A (15 March 2011). "Prairie ecosystems and the carbon problem". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 9 (7): 407–413. doi:10.1890/100063. ISSN   1540-9295.
  11. 1 2 Joost, Richard E. (2015-10-26), "Conservation: Erosion Control, Soil Management and Remediation, and Effects on Wildlife Habitat", in Fribourg, H.A.; Hannaway, D.B.; West, C.P. (eds.), Tall Fescue for the Twenty-first Century, Agronomy Monographs, Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, pp. 489–507, doi:10.2134/agronmonogr53.c28, ISBN   978-0-89118-185-9 , retrieved 2023-03-14
  12. ↑ Li, Zhiying; Fang, Haiyan (2016-12-01). "Impacts of climate change on water erosion: A review". Earth-Science Reviews. 163: 94–117. Bibcode:2016ESRv..163...94L. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.004. ISSN   0012-8252.
  13. ↑ Weaver, J. E. (1927). "Some Ecological Aspects of Agriculture in the Prairie". Ecology. 8 (1): 1–17. doi:10.2307/1929382. ISSN   0012-9658. JSTOR   1929382. S2CID   18724345.
  14. ↑ "AGR-102 EROSION - ITS EFFECT ON SOIL PROPERTIES, PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFIT". www2.ca.uky.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  15. ↑ Purakayastha, T. J.; Huggins, D. R.; Smith, J. L. (1 March 2008). "Carbon Sequestration in Native Prairie, Perennial Grass, No-Till, and Cultivated Palouse Silt Loam". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 72 (2): 534–540. Bibcode:2008SSASJ..72..534P. doi:10.2136/sssaj2005.0369.
  16. 1 2 Lal, Rattan (2008-02-27). "Carbon sequestration". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1492): 815–830. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2185. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   2610111 . PMID   17761468.
  17. 1 2 Anonymous (2019-09-20). "What is Carbon Sequestration and How Does it Work?". CLEAR Center. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  18. ↑ Team, Grassroots (2021-06-11). "How Soil Carbon Storage Works". Grassroots Carbon. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  19. ↑ "Native Praries are resilient". Texas Community Watershed Partners. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  20. ↑ Sagers, Larry A (2005). Waterwise Gardening and Landscaping.
  21. ↑ "Prairie Restoration - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  22. ↑ Meals, Donald W; Dressing, Steven A (January 2010). "Lag Time in Water Quality Response to Best Management Practices: A Review". Journal of Environmental Quality: 39(1):85–96.
  23. ↑ Shimp, J. F.; Tracy, J. C.; Davis, L. C.; Lee, E.; Huang, W.; Erickson, L. E.; Schnoor, J. L. (1993-01-01). "Beneficial effects of plants in the remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated with organic materials". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 23 (1): 41–77. doi:10.1080/10643389309388441. ISSN   1064-3389.
  24. ↑ Harmon-Threatt, Alexandra; Chin, Kristen (1 October 2016). "Common Methods for Tallgrass Prairie Restoration and Their Potential Effects on Bee Diversity". Natural Areas Journal. 36 (4): 400–411. doi:10.3375/043.036.0407. S2CID   89237405 . Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  25. ↑ Brye, Kristofor R; Cordes, Faith; McKee, Marya (January 2020). "Prairie Restoration Effects on Near-Surface Soil Nutrient Changes Over Time in the Ozark Highlands Region of Northwest Arkansas". Research Gate. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Borsari, Mundahl, Vidrine, Pastorek, Bruno, Neal, Malcolm F., Marc (April 2014). "The Significance of Micro-Prairie Reconstruction in Urban Environments". ResearchGate. Retrieved March 26, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. 1 2 Harmon-Threatt, Alexandra; Chin, Kristen (1 October 2016). "Common Methods for Tallgrass Prairie Restoration and Their Potential Effects on Bee Diversity". Natural Areas Journal. 36 (4): 400–411. doi:10.3375/043.036.0407. S2CID   89237405 . Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  28. ↑ Reel, Susan. "Attracting Pollinators to Your Garden Using Native Plants" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  29. 1 2 3 4 "Prairie Restoration - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  30. 1 2 Ontl, Todd; Janowiak, Maria (June 2017). "Grassland Carbon Management". Climate Change Resource Center. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  31. ↑ Sardans, Jordi; Peñuelas, Josep (October 31, 2012). "The Role of Plants in the Effects of Global Change on Nutrient Availability and Stoichiometry in the Plant-Soil System". Plant Physiology. 160 (4): 1741–1761. doi:10.1104/pp.112.208785. PMC   3510107 . PMID   23115250.
  32. 1 2 Barwise, Yendle; Kumar, Prashant (26 March 2020). "Designing vegetation barriers for urban air pollution abatement: a practical review for appropriate plant species selection". npj Climate and Atmospheric Science. 3 (12): 19. doi: 10.1038/s41612-020-0115-3 . S2CID   214647744.
  33. ↑ Norton, Briony A.; Bending, Gary D.; Clark, Rachel; Corstanje, Ron; Dunnett, Nigel; Evans, Karl L.; Grafius, Darren R.; Gravestock, Emily; Grice, Samuel M.; Harris, Jim A.; Hilton, Sally; Hoyle, Helen; Lim, Edward; Mercer, Theresa G.; Pawlett, Mark (September 2019). "Urban meadows as an alternative to short mown grassland: effects of composition and height on biodiversity". Ecological Applications. 29 (6): e01946. doi:10.1002/eap.1946. ISSN   1051-0761. PMC   6851864 . PMID   31173423.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 Blvd, Mailing Address: 111 E. Kellogg; Paul, Suite 105 Saint; Us, MN 55101 Phone: 651-293-0200 This is the general phone line at the Mississippi River Visitor Center Contact. "Prairie Maintenance - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  35. 1 2 3 Hirschfeld, Sarah; Van Acker, Rene (2021-07-03). "Review: ecosystem services in permaculture systems". Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems. 45 (6): 794–816. doi:10.1080/21683565.2021.1881862. ISSN   2168-3565. S2CID   233950380.
  36. ↑ Camill, Philip; McKone, Mark J.; Sturges, Sean T.; Severud, William J.; Ellis, Erin; Limmer, Jacob; Martin, Christopher B.; Navratil, Ryan T.; Purdie, Amy J.; Sandel, Brody S.; Talukder, Shano; Trout, Andrew (December 2004). "Community- and Ecosystem-Level Changes in a Species-Rich Tallgrass Prairie Restoration". Ecological Applications. 14 (6): 1680–1694. doi:10.1890/03-5273. ISSN   1051-0761.
  37. 1 2 Rector, Barron. Know Your Grasses. Texas A&M AgriLife Extension.
  38. ↑ Five Rivers Metroparks. "Meet Our Prairie Plants" (PDF).
  39. ↑ Steinauer, Gerry (April 2013). "Healing Plants of the Prairie" (PDF).
  40. 1 2 The Importance of using Local Ecotype Plant Material Archived 2010-09-23 at the Wayback Machine , Iowa Prairie Network
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Török, Péter; Vida, Enikő; Deák, Balázs; Lengyel, Szabolcs; Tóthmérész, Béla (October 2011). "Grassland restoration on former croplands in Europe: an assessment of applicability of techniques and costs". Biodiversity and Conservation. 20 (11): 2311–2332. doi:10.1007/s10531-011-9992-4. ISSN   0960-3115. S2CID   19753537.
  42. ↑ Main, Martin B.; Barry, Michael J. (2002-06-01). "Influence of season of fire on flowering of wet prairie grasses in south Florida, USA". Wetlands. 22 (2): 430–434. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2002)022[0430:IOSOFO]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   1943-6246. S2CID   46591314.
  43. ↑ "burn". The Prairie Ecologist. 7 December 2021. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  44. ↑ Roberts, Shelby (2022-04-01). "Spring prairie burns: why they're important and when to do them". scottswcd. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  45. ↑ Wray, Jacilee; Anderson, M. Kat (2003). "Restoring Indian-Set Fires to Prairie Ecosystems on the Olympic Peninsula". Ecological Restoration. 21 (4): 296–301. doi:10.3368/er.21.4.296. ISSN   1543-4060. JSTOR   43442712. S2CID   85110439.
  46. ↑ Kemmerling, Lindsey R.; Rutkoski, Corinn E.; Evans, Sarah E.; Helms, Jackson A.; Cordova-Ortiz, Esbeiry S.; Smith, Jamie D.; Vázquez Custodio, Jorge A.; Vizza, Carmella; Haddad, Nick M. (2022). "Prairie Strips and Lower Land Use Intensity Increase Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 10. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2022.833170 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  47. 1 2 Carter, John; Jones, Allison; O’Brien, Mary; Ratner, Jonathan; Wuerthner, George (2014-04-23). "Holistic Management: Misinformation on the Science of Grazed Ecosystems". International Journal of Biodiversity. 2014: e163431. doi: 10.1155/2014/163431 . ISSN   2314-4149.
  48. 1 2 Zhao, Tianqi; Iwaasa, Alan D. (2022-01-11). "Rotational grazing increases purple prairie clover frequency in the rangeland plant communities under semi-arid environment". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 102 (3): 600–607. doi:10.1139/cjps-2021-0141. S2CID   250093436.
  49. ↑ Coughlin, Chrissy. "Allan Savory: How livestock can protect the land". GreenBiz. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
  50. ↑ Chen, Tao; Tang, Guoping; Yuan, Ye; Guo, Hao; Xu, Zhenwu; Jiang, Guo; Chen, Xiaohua (2020-11-15). "Unraveling the relative impacts of climate change and human activities on grassland productivity in Central Asia over last three decades". Science of the Total Environment. 743: 140649. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.743n0649C. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140649. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   32758823. S2CID   221037870.
  51. 1 2 Shore, Debra (November 2005). "BEST PRACTICES IN CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION" (PDF). Chicago Wilderness Journal. 3 (3).
  52. 1 2 3 Assessment, US EPA National Center for Environmental (2009-03-15). "Prairie restoration at Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie". hero.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-06.
  53. ↑ Mlot, Christine (1990-12-01). "Restoring the prairie". BioScience. 40 (11): 804–810. doi: 10.2307/1311481 . JSTOR   1311481.
  54. 1 2 Campbell, Ryan E.; Hooymans, Jacques L. (2016-01-01). "Results from Four Decades of Successional Prairie Restoration and an Update on Ecological Land Management at Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois". OSTI   1469003.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.