Proto-Torres–Banks language

Proto-Torres-Banks
PTB
Reconstruction of	Torres–Banks languages
Region	Torres and Banks Islands
Era	after 1000 BCE
Reconstructed ancestors	Proto-Austronesian Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Proto-Oceanic Proto-North-Central Vanuatu

Proto-Torres-Banks (abbr. PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the seventeen languages of the Torres and Banks Islands of Vanuatu. Like all indigenous languages of Vanuatu, it belongs to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian languages.

More specifically, it is the shared ancestor of the following modern languages: Hiw, Lo-Toga, Lehali, Löyöp, Volow, Mwotlap, Lemerig, Vera'a, Vurës, Mwesen, Mota, Nume, Dorig, Koro, Olrat, Lakon, and Mwerlap.

Reconstruction

Proto-Torres-Banks, as reconstructed with the comparative method from the attested daughter languages, evidently represented an early, mutually intelligible chain of Oceanic dialects in the northern part of Vanuatu starting from 1000 BCE after Lapita settlement of the archipelago, as evidenced by the pattern of loss and retention of the Proto-Oceanic phoneme *R, which merged with *r in the early history of the North-Central Vanuatu dialect chain. It therefore is not a "true" proto-language in the sense of an undifferentiated language ancestral to all Torres–Banks languages, but rather a part of the early North-Central Vanuatu linkage with some dialectal variation across different island groups, before they eventually disintegrated into mutually unintelligible languages. ^[1]

Elements of the proto-language have been proposed by linguist A. François: vowels ^[2] and consonants, ^[3] personal pronouns, ^[4] space system, ^[5] vocabulary. ^[6]

Phonology

Phoneme inventory

Proto-Torres-Banks had 5 phonemic vowels, /i e a o u/, ^[2] and 16 consonants:

Vowels

	Front	Back
Close	*i	*u
Close-mid	*e	*o
Open	*a

Consonants

		Labiovelar	Bilabial	Alveolar	Dorsal
Stop	prenasalized	* ᵐ b ʷ	* ᵐ b	* ⁿ d	* ᵑ g
	voiceless			* t
Nasal		* m ʷ	* m	* n	* ŋ
Fricative			* β ⟨v⟩	* s	* ɣ
Approximant		* w		* l , * r	* j

Following the loss of final POc consonants (or dialectal addition of a paragogic vowel), syllable structure in Proto-Torres-Banks was open, i.e. (C)V with optional consonant: e.g. POc *uraŋ "crayfish" > PTB *ura/*uraŋi; POc *matiruʀ "to sleep" > PTB *matiru; POc *laŋit "sky" > PTB*laŋi "wind". No descendant language preserves this situation today, but it can still be found in other related languages such as Gela and Uneapa.

In trisyllabic words, the first vowel tends to be deleted or copied after the second vowel, with the exception of Mota and Lakon, which preserve them. ^[2]

Stress fell on the penultimate syllable. Due to the pervasive loss of final vowels, descendant languages usually have stress on the final syllable. ^[2] Vera'a and Mota have lost stress entirely.

Evolution of vowels

In all of the descendant languages except for Mota, vowel hybridization occurred (a form of metaphony or umlaut). ^[2] Later, a process of vowel deletion took place whereby every second vowel, being unstressed, was dropped: this resulted in an increase in the number of vowel phonemes – a process known as transphonologization. ^[2] For example, PTB*laŋi "wind" > HIW[jɔŋ], MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language[lɛŋ], giving rise to phonemes /ɔ/ and /ɛ/ respectively. ^[7] Words which initially had 4 syllables were reduced to 2 syllables (e.g. POc *RapiRapi "evening" > PTB*raβiˈraβi > MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /rɛβrɛβ/ [rɛɸˈrɛɸ]); *CVCV disyllables were reduced to a single CVC syllable (e.g. POc *roŋoR "to hear" > PTB*roŋo > LKN Tooltip Lakon language /rɔŋ/); words with 3 syllables ended up with 2, including *CVCVV which became *CVCV (e.g. POc *panua "island, land" > PTB*βanua > LKN Tooltip Lakon language /βanʊ/).

In Mota, only single high vowels were dropped, evident even in the earliest records: e.g. *tolu "three" > /tol/. In the 1880s, Codrington reported cases when Mota had preserved high vowels (e.g. /siwo/ "down"; /tolu/ "three"), which have since disappeared from today's Mota (e.g. /swo/; ^[8] /tol/).

In Hiw, Lo-Toga and Vera'a, the final vowel was retained as a schwa when it was originally lower than the one under stress: ^[9] e.g. POc *ikan "fish" > PTB*íɣa > HIW /ɪɣə/, LTG /iɣə/. In Vera'a, the schwa became an echo vowel, e.g. POc *pulan "moon" > PTB*βula > *βulə > VRA /fulʊ/; that final vowel in Vera'a can disappear in phrase-medial position, yielding the form /ful/ for 'moon'.

Examples of reconstructions

PTB reconstruction	meaning	reflexes	Proto-Oceanic etymon	source
*[n]iᵑgo	‘2sg. pronoun, thou’	(1) *iᵑgo > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ikə/  (2) *niᵑgo > LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /nikə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /nɛk/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /niŋ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /nɪŋ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɪk/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /næk/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /nikɪ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /nɪk/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /nɪk/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /niko/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /nik/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /nɪk/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /nɪk/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /nɪk/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /nɪk/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ͡ak/	*[i]ko[e] "thou"	François 2016: 39
*lolomarani	‘wise, intelligent; wisdom, knowledge’	HIW Tooltip Hiw language /jɵjməg͡ʟen/ ‘smart; to know’, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /lolmərɛn/ ‘smart; to know’, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /lɛlməjæn/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /lɔlmɛjɛn/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /lɔlmɛjɛn/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /lɔlmɛjɛn/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /lɪlmɛrɛn/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /lʊlmaran/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /lʊlʊmɛrɛn/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /lɔlmɛrɛn/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /lolomaran/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /llɔmraːn/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /lɔlmaːræn/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /lɔlmɛrɛn/	*lalom "inside" + *ma-Raqani "daylight"	François 2013: 208
*rowo	‘dash, escape; out; seawards’	HIW Tooltip Hiw language /g͡ʟow/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /row/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /jɔw/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /jɔw/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /jɔ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /jɔw/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /rɔw/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /rʊw/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /rʊw/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /rɔw/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /rowo/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /rɔw/	*Ropok ‘dash, fly’	François 2015: 191
*salaɣoro	‘secret; secret meeting place in the bush for men during initiation rituals’	LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /hɔləɣor/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-halɣɛj/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-salɣoj/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-halɣoj/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-halɣoj/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-sɒlɣœr/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /salɣʊr/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /salɣʊr/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /salɣɔr/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /salaɣoro/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /salɔwɔr/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /salɣɔr/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /salɣɔr/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /salwɔj/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /salwɔː/	*jalan "road" + PNCV *koro "obstruct"	François 2005: 499
*s[i,u]wo	‘down; northwest’	(1) *siwo > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /hiw/ "Hiw (island)", LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /iw/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /siwo/ (modern /swo/)  (2) *suwo > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ʉw/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /hɔw/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /sʊw/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /hʊ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /hʊw/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /sʊw/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /suwʊ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /sʊw/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /sʊw/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /hʊw/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /sʊw/	*sipo "down"	François 2015: 190
*totoɣale	‘notch (wood), carve an effigy; effigy, image’	MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɔ-tɔtɣal/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /ʔɔɣal/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ʔʊɣal/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /tʊtɣi͡al/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /totoɣale/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /tɔtɣæl/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-tɛtɣɛl/	*toto(k) "cut" + PNCV *kale "deceive"	François 2013: 198

Regular sound changes from Proto-Oceanic

The historical sound changes that took place from Proto-Oceanic (POc) to Proto-Torres-Banks (PTB) were intricate, yet largely regular. Some have been reconstructed explicitly, whether on vowels ^[2] or on consonants; ^{[3] [10]} others are implicit in published lists of PTB lexical reconstructions. ^[6]

Pervasive phonological sound changes include:

• The loss of all final POc consonants, such as POc *manuk "bird" > PTB*manu. This sound change resulted in the language having only open syllables. ^[11]
• The labialization of POc *p, *ᵐb and *m before *o or *u, resulting in PTB*w (< *βʷ), *ᵐbʷ and *mʷ (especially in Torres and northern Banks languages).

Considering each POc proto-phoneme sequentially, the PTB reflexes can be listed in the following table.

POc	PTB reflex	Comments	Examples	Source
*pʷ	*βʷ > *w	> /w/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *puia "good" [12] > *pʷia > *βʷia > PTB*wia > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /wi̯ə/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /⟨ɣɛ-wi̯ə/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /⟨ɣɛ-wɪ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /wɪ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /wi/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /wiɪ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /wɪ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /wɪ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /wia/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /wɪ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /wɪ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /wɪ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /wɪ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /wɛ͡a/
*p	*β	> /β/ in most daughter languages, except: /f/ in VRA Tooltip Vera'a language. *β tends to become /w/ before *o or *u.	- POc *panua "island, land" > PTB*βanua > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /βəniɵ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /βəniə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-βɔnɔ/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-βʊnʊ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-βʊnʊ/,, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-pnʊ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-βʊnʊ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /funuʊ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /βono/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /βʊnʊ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /βanua/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /βunu/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /βnʊ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /βʊnʊ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /βʊnʊ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /βanʊ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /βʊnʊ/ [2] : 469	[3]
	*w	Before a rounded vowel, *p > *β > *βʷ > /w/ often (though not always); mostly in northern languages	- POc *poli "to buy" > *βoli > *βʷoli > PTB*woli > MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /wɪl/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /wol/ - PTB *[β,βʷ]usi "hit, kill"  > (1) *βusi > VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /fus/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /βys/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /βus/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /βus/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /βuh/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /βus/  > (2) *βʷusi > *wusi > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /wu/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /wuh/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /wih/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /wuh/	[3]
*t	*t	> /t/ in all daughter languages, except: /ʔ/ in LMG Tooltip Lemerig language and VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /t͡ʃ/ in LYP Tooltip Löyöp language before front vowels. *ti > /s/ in LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language and LKN Tooltip Lakon language.	- POc *[qa]tamate "dead person" > PTB*[a]tamate "ghost, spirit" > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /təmet/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /təmet/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-təmat/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-tamat/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-tamat/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-tmat/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /ʔamaʔ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ʔamaʔ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /timi͡at/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /tamat/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /tamate/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /tamat/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /tmat/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /tamat/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /tamat/ LKN Tooltip Lakon language /ætmæt/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-tɛmɛt/ [13] : 213  - POc *pati "four" > PTB*βati > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /βɔt/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /βɛt/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /βæt/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /βɛt/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-βɛt/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /βɛt/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /βɛʔ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /fɛʔ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /βɛt/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /βɛt/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /βat/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /βat/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /βaːt/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /βɛ͡at/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /βat/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /βæs/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /βɛt/	[3]
*k	*ɣ	> /ɣ/ in all daughter languages, except: Before *o or *u, in some languages, *ɣ tends to become w. In LHI Tooltip Lehali language, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language, VLW Tooltip Volow language, NUM Tooltip Nume language and possibly KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu), *ɣ was lost in coda position. In OLR Tooltip Olrat language, *ɣ was lost in coda position and triggered compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel. [14]	- POc *kutu > PTB*ɣutu "louse" > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ɣit/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ɣʉt/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /wut/, LHI Tooltip Löyöp language /wut/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /ni-ɣit/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ni-ɣit/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /wuʔ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /wuʔ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /wyt/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /wut/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /wut/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /wu-wut/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /wut/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ɣut/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /wut/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /wut/ - POc *sake "up" > PTB*saɣe > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /aɣ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /[i]aɣ/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /ha/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /sa/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /ha/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /haɣ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /saɣ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /saɣ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /si͡aɣ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /saɣ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /saɣe/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /sa/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /saɣ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /sa[ɣ]/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /saː/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /haɣ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /sɛ͡aɣ/ [2] : 499	[3]
*ᵐbʷ	*ᵐbʷ (>*ᵑᵐg͡bʷ)	> /ᵑᵐg͡bʷ/ in VLW Tooltip Volow language /k͡pʷ/ in all Banks languages except VLW Tooltip Volow language and MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language. /kʷ/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language, LHI Tooltip Lehali language and MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language.	- POc *ᵐbʷatu(k) "head" + -ᵑgu "my" > PTB*ᵐbʷatu-ᵑgu "my head" > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷatu-ᵑgu > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /kʷiti-k/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷətʉ-k/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-kʷutu-k/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-k͡pʷit͡ʃi-k/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷiti-ŋ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ni-k͡pʷti-k/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-k͡pʷiʔi-k/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /k͡pʷiʔi-k/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /k͡pʷøty-k/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /k͡pʷutu-k/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /k͡pʷatu-k/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /na-k͡pʷutu-k/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /na-k͡pʷtu-k/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /k͡pʷutu-k/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /k͡pʷutu-k/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /k͡pʷatʊ-k/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɞ-kʷɞtʉ-k/	[3]
*ᵐb	*ᵐb	(in onset position of modern syllable) /ᵐb/ in VLW Tooltip Volow language, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language, VRS Tooltip Vurës language, NUM Tooltip Nume language, DRG Tooltip Dorig language, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu), MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /p/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language, LHI Tooltip Lehali language, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language, MTA Tooltip Mota language, OLR Tooltip Olrat language, LKN Tooltip Lakon language.	- POc *ᵐbanic "wing" + -ᵑgu "my" > PTB*ᵐbani-ᵑgu "my hand; my wing" > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /pini-k/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /pɛnɛ-k/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-mɪnɪ-ŋ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-mnɪ-k/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /pini-k/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ᵐbini-k/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ᵐbɛni-k/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /pini-k/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /pane-k/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ᵐbini-k/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /na-ᵐbni-k/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ᵐbini-k/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /panɪ-k/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /ᵐbani-k/	[3]
		(in coda position of modern syllable) /ᵐb/ in DRG Tooltip Dorig language /m/ in LHI Tooltip Lehali language, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language, VLW Tooltip Volow language, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language, VRS Tooltip Vurës language, NUM Tooltip Nume language, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu), MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /p/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language, MTA Tooltip Mota language, OLR Tooltip Olrat language, LKN Tooltip Lakon language.	- PTB*leᵐba "mud, muddy" > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /jepə/ “swamp”, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /lɛpə/ “swamp”, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-læm/ “swamp garden for taro”, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, MTA Tooltip Mota language /lepa/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /lɛᵐb/ “soil, ground”, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /lɛp/ “soil, ground”	[3]
	*ᵐbʷ	*ᵐb before a rounded vowel. → same reflexes as with *ᵐbʷ.	- POc *ᵐboŋi "night" > PTB*ᵐbʷoŋi > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷoŋi > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /kɵŋ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷəŋ/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /kʷɔŋ/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷɪŋ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /k͡pʷøŋ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /k͡pʷøŋ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /k͡pʷoŋ/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /k͡pʷʊŋ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /k͡pʷɪŋ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /kʷʊŋ/	[3]
*ⁿd / *ⁿdr	*ⁿd	(in onset position of modern syllable) /ⁿd/ in all Torres-Banks languages, except: /t/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language and LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /ʈ͡ʂ/ in LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language. [15] /t͡ʃ/ in OLR Tooltip Olrat language and LKN Tooltip Lakon language /n/ in MSN Tooltip Mwesen language and MTA Tooltip Mota language	- POc *ⁿdraRaq "blood" > PTB*ⁿdara > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /tag͡ʟə/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂarə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-ⁿdaj/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-ⁿdaj/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ⁿdaj/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-ⁿdaj/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /tɒr/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ⁿdara/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ⁿdar/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /nar/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /nara/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ⁿdar/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ⁿdar/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ⁿdar/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /t͡ʃaj/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /t͡ʃæː/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /na-ⁿdar/	[3]
		(in coda position of modern syllable) /ⁿd/ in DRG Tooltip Dorig language /t/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /t͡ʃ/ in OLR Tooltip Olrat language and LKN Tooltip Lakon language /n/ in all other Torres-Banks languages	- POc *kita "1 incl:pl Tooltip Inclusive we" > PTB*ɣiⁿda > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /titə/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ɣiʈ͡ʂə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /ɣɛn/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /jɛn/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /ɣɪn/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ɣɪn/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /ɣæt/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ɣiⁿdɪ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /nin/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /nin/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /nina/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ɣin/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ɣɪⁿd/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ɣin/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /ɣɛ͡an/ [16] - PTB*ⁿdiⁿdi “wall in; enclosure” > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /tit/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂit/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /ⁿdin/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ⁿdin/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /nin/ - POc *roⁿdrom “think” > PTB *[ⁿdo]ⁿdo[mi]  > (1) *ⁿdomi > LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ⁿdɪm/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /nom/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ⁿdʊm/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ⁿdʊm/  > (2) *ⁿdoⁿdo > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /tot/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂot/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /ⁿdɛn/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /ⁿdɔn/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /ⁿdɔn/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /tœt/  > (3) *ⁿdoⁿdomi > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ttɵm/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ⁿdʊⁿdʊm/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ⁿdøⁿdøm/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /nʊnʊm/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /nonom/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ⁿdʊⁿdʊm/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /t͡ʃɪt͡ʃɪm/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /t͡ʃɪːt͡ʃɪm/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /ⁿdɵⁿdʊ͡ɵm/  > (4) *ⁿdomiⁿdomi > LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂəmʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ⁿdɪmⁿdɪm/	[3]
*ᵑg	*ᵑg	Retained as /ᵑg/ in VLW Tooltip Volow language. /k/ in all other daughter languages.	- POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > PTB*ᵑg[ur]io  > (1) *ᵑgurio > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /kʷg͡ʟɪ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷuriə/  > (2) *ᵑgio > LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-kɛ/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-kɪ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /nɪ-ᵑgɪ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɪ-kɪ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /kɪ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /kɪ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /kio/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /wi-ki/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /kɪ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /kɪ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /kɪ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-kɛ͡a/	[3]
*mʷ	*mʷ (>*ŋ͡mʷ)	> /ŋ͡mʷ/ in most daughter languages. /ŋʷ/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language, LHI Tooltip Lehali language and MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language.	- POc *mʷata "snake" > PTB*mʷata > *ŋ͡mʷata > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ŋʷatə/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋʷetə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /ŋʷat/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /ŋ͡mʷat/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ŋ͡mʷat/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-ŋ͡mʷat/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /ŋ͡mʷaʔ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ŋ͡mʷaʔa/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ŋ͡mʷat/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /ŋ͡mʷat/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /ŋ͡mʷata/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ŋ͡mʷat/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ŋ͡mʷat/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ŋ͡mʷa/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /ŋ͡mʷat/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /ŋʷat/
*m	*m	> /m/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *mate "die, dead" > PTB*mate > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /met/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /met/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /mat/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /mat/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /mat/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /mat/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /maʔ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /maʔ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /mi͡at/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /mat/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /mate/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /mat/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /mat/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /mat/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /mat/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /mæt/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /mɛt/
	*mʷ	*m before a rounded vowel → same reflexes as with *mʷ (often, though not always; mostly in northern languages).	- POc *mule "return" > PTB*m[ʷ]ule  > (1) *mule > LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /mʊl/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /mulʊ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /mule/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /mʊl/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /mulæ/  > (2) *mʷule > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ŋʷujə/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋʷulə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /ŋʷɔl/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /ŋ͡mʷʊl/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /ŋ͡mʷʊl/
*n / *ñ	*n	> /n/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *ñatuq "Burckella" > PTB*natu > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /nɔt/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɛ-nɛt/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /nɛʔ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /nœt/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /natu/, - POc *ñamuk "mosquito" > PTB*namu[ɣi]  > (1) *namu > LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ni͡ɛm/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /næm/, LHI Tooltip Löyöp language /nɛm/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-nɛm/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɛ-nɛm/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /nœm/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /nam/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /nɛm/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /nɔm/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /nam[u]/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /nam/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɞ-nɔm/  > (2) *namuɣi > DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ⁿdŋ͡mʷuɣ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /muɣ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /muː/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /namuɣ/
*ŋ	*ŋ	> /ŋ/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > PTB*[a]ŋa[r]i  > (1) *[a]ŋari > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ŋeg͡ʟ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋɛr/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-ŋæj/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-ŋɪj/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ŋɛj/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-ŋɛj/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-ŋɛr/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ŋar/,  > (2) *[a]ŋai > MTA Tooltip Mota language /ŋai/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ŋa/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ŋa/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ŋa/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /ŋa/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /aŋæ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɪ-ŋɪ/
*s / *c / *j	*s	Usually /s/ in the daughter languages, but can debuccalize or disappear under uncertain conditions: /s/ or /h/ in LHI Tooltip Lehali language, VLW Tooltip Volow language, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language and LKN Tooltip Lakon language /h/ or Ø in LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /s/ or /t/ or Ø in HIW Tooltip Hiw language.	- POc *sake "up" > PTB*saɣe > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /aɣ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /[i]aɣ/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /ha/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /sa/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /ha/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /haɣ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /saɣ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /saɣ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /si͡aɣ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /saɣ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /saɣe/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /sa/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /saɣ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /sa[ɣ]/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /saː/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /haɣ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /sɛ͡aɣ/ - POc *sale "to float" > PTB*sale > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /aj/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /al/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /hal/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /sal/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /sale/	[3]
*l	*l	> /l/ in all daughter languages except: /j/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language.	- POc *lalo-ᵑgu "my inside" > PTB*lolo-ᵑgu "my mind" > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /jɵ-k/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /lio-k/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-lɪ-k/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-lø-k/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-lɪ-ŋ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-lɪ-k/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-lø-k/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /lʊ-k/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /lølø-k/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /lʊlʊ-k/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /lolo-k/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /na-llɔ-k/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /na-llʊ-k/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /na-llʊ-k/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /lʊlʊ-k/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /lɔlɔ-k/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /lɵ-k/	[13] : 204
*r	*r	Preserved as an alveolar trill /r/ in most daughter languages, except: /g͡ʟ/ in HIW Tooltip Hiw language /j/ in LHI Tooltip Lehali language, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language, VLW Tooltip Volow language, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /j/ in OLR Tooltip Olrat language (in syllable codas) In syllable codas, *r disappears in LKN Tooltip Lakon language with compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel. [10]	- POc *roŋoR "to hear" > PTB*roŋo > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /g͡ʟoŋ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /roŋ/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /jɛŋ/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /jɔŋ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /rɔŋ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /rʊŋ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /roŋ-tɛɣ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /rɔŋ-tɛ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /roŋo/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /rɔŋɔ-tɛ/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /rɔŋ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /rɔŋ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /rɔŋ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /rɔŋ-tæɣ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /rɔŋ/ [2] : 482  - POc *paRi "stingray" > PTB*βari > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /βɔg͡ʟ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /βɛr/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-βæj/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-βɪj/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-βɪj/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɛ-βɛj/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-βɛr/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /fɛr/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /βœr/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /βɛr/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /βar/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /fɛr/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /βaːr/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /βɛ͡ar/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /βaj/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /βæː/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-βɛr/
*R	*r / Ø	In most cases the reflexes are consistent across Torres–Banks languages: either they all lost *R, or all reflect them as *r. However, for about 20 words, the reflexes are inconsistent, with *R preserved in northern languages vs. lost further south; this is evidence that PTB formed a network of separated dialects. [1]	- POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > PTB*[a]ŋa[r]i  > (1) *[a]ŋari > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ŋeg͡ʟ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋɛr/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-ŋæj/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-ŋɪj/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ŋɛj/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-ŋɛj/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-ŋɛr/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ŋar/,  > (2) *[a]ŋai > MTA Tooltip Mota language /ŋai/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ŋa/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ŋa/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ŋa/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /ŋa/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /aŋæ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɪ-ŋɪ/ - POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > PTB*ᵑg[ur]io  > (1) *ᵑgurio > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /kʷg͡ʟɪ/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷuriə/  > (2) *ᵑgio > LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-kɛ/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-kɪ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /nɪ-ᵑgɪ/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /nɪ-kɪ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /kɪ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /kɪ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /kio/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /wi-ki/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /kɪ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /kɪ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /kɪ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-kɛ͡a/	[10]
*q	Ø (hiatus)	Sequences of identical vowels that resulted after its loss were reduced to a single vowel, as in POc *saqat-i "bad" > PTB*sati.	- POc *saqat "bad" > PTB*saa[ti]  > (1) *saa > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ssa/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /hi͡a/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /sa/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /sa/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /sa/  > (2) *sati > LHI Tooltip Lehali language /sæt/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /sɛt/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /hɪt/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /hɛt/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /sɛʔ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /sɛʔ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /sɪt/  > (3) *tatasi (metathesis) > MTA Tooltip Mota language /tatas/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ttɪs/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ttaːs/
*w	*w	Generally preserved only in the Torres languages and lost in the Banks languages. Sometimes retained between vowels: PNCV*marawa "spider" > PTB*marawa > MTA Tooltip Mota language /marawa/.	- POc *waᵑga "canoe" > PTB*waᵑga > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /wakə/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ekə/, LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-ɒk/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-ɔŋ/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /n-ɔk/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /n-ɔk/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /naka/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ak/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /ak/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /aka/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /w-ak/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ak/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /n-ak/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /n-ak/ - POc *ᵐbakewa "shark" > PTB*ᵐbaɣewa  > (1) HIW Tooltip Hiw language /poweɣə/ (metathesis), LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /pəɣɛwə/  > (2) *ᵐbaɣea > LHI Tooltip Lehali language /n-pəɣæ/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-pɛɣɛ/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ᵐbɛɣiɛ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ᵐbɛɣɛ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /pɛɣɛ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /paɣɛ/  > (3) *ᵐbaɣoa > MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-ᵐbaɣɔ/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /pɔɣɔ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ᵐboɣo/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /pɔɣɔ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /paɣoa/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ᵐbɔɣɔ/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ᵐbɣɔ/, MRL Tooltip Mwerlap language /na-ᵐbaɣɔ/
*y	*y	Generally lost in the daughter languages. Cases such as PNCV*maraya "eel" > PTB*maraya, where reflexes such as MTA Tooltip Mota language /marea/ and LKN Tooltip Lakon language /marɛ/ presuppose *marea, but MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-mja/ presupposes *maraa, can be taken as evidence that PTB had not yet lost the phoneme.	- POc *kawaR "potent root" > *kawa > *kaya(irregular change) > PTB*ɣaya > HIW Tooltip Hiw language /ɣa/, LTG Tooltip Lo-Toga language /ɣi/, LYP Tooltip Löyöp language /n-ɣa/, VLW Tooltip Volow language /na-ɣa/, MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /na-ɣa/, LMG Tooltip Lemerig language /n-ɣa/, VRA Tooltip Vera'a language /ɣiɛ/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /ɣɪ/, MSN Tooltip Mwesen language /ɣɛ/, MTA Tooltip Mota language /ɣea/, NUM Tooltip Nume language /ɣɛ/, DRG Tooltip Dorig language /ɣɛ/, KRO Tooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ɣɛ/, OLR Tooltip Olrat language /ɣɛ/, LKN Tooltip Lakon language /ɣɛ/

Grammar

Pronouns

The pronouns of Proto-Torres-Banks are (from François 2016: 33-35):

		Singular	Dual	Trial	Plural
1st person	exclusive	*nau	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amarua	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amatolu	*[ɣ,ᵑg]ama[m]i
	inclusive		*ɣiⁿdarua	*ɣiⁿdatolu	*ɣiⁿda
2nd person		*[n]iᵑgo	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amurua	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amutolu	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amuyu
3rd person		*nia	*[i]rarua	*[i]ratolu	*[ɣ,ᵑg]ira

Numbers

The following are reconstructions for numbers 1–10 for PTB:^{[ citation needed ]}

1. *tea, *tuwale
2. *rua
3. *tolu
4. *βati
5. *taβea-lima
6. *laβea-tea
7. *laβea-rua
8. *laβea-tolu
9. *laβea-βati
10. *saŋaβulu

Example sentence

A reconstructed sentence (from François 2009:191):

*Nau

1SG

ᵑgu=

AO:1SG=

mule

return

ᵑgu=

AO:1SG=

maturu.

sleep

*Nau ᵑgu= mule ᵑgu= maturu.

1SG AO:1SG= return AO:1SG= sleep

'So I went back and slept.'/'Let me go back and sleep!'

Notes

1. François (2011).
2. François (2005).
3. François (2016): 31).
4. François (2009, 2016).
5. François (2015).
6. François (2005): 489-502; 2013).
7. This syllable-reduction process can be dated sometime within the last 1000 years, as evidenced by Polynesian loans such as MTP Tooltip Mwotlap language /kumaj/, VRS Tooltip Vurës language /komar/ < *kumara "sweet potato"; that vegetable, together with its name (originally, a likely loan from languages of South America), was brought to Vanuatu by the relatively recent expansion that gave rise to Polynesian outliers.
8. François (2015:190).
9. François (2005: 462-5).
10. François (2011:) 149-151).
11. Cases such as POc *saqat "bad" > LHI Tooltip Lehali language /sæt/ can be explained by the addition of a paragogic vowel in PTB (François 2005: 479-480); thus POc *saqat "bad" > *saqat-i > PTB*sati > LHI Tooltip Lehali language /sæt/.
12. See p.596 of: Ross, Malcolm D.; Osmond, Meredith (2016). "Describing people: stature, temperament, emotion and evaluation". In Ross, Malcolm D.; Pawley, Andrew K.; Osmond, Meredith (eds.). The lexicon of Proto-Oceanic. People: Body and mind (PDF). A-PL. Vol. 5. Canberra: Asia–Pacific Linguistics. pp. 567–599..
13. François (2013).
14. François (2005: 461).
15. See the inventory of Lo-Toga phonemes in the presentation of the Lo-Toga corpus (Pangloss Collection).
16. François (2016): 35).

References

• François, Alexandre (2005), "Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen northern Vanuatu languages" (PDF), Oceanic Linguistics, 44 (2): 443–504, doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0034, S2CID   131668754
• François, Alexandre (2009), "Verbal aspect and personal pronouns: The history of aorist markers in north Vanuatu" (PDF), in Pawley, Andrew; Adelaar, Alexander (eds.), Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Bob Blust, vol. 601, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, pp. 179–195
• François, Alexandre (2011), "Where *R they all? The history and geography of *R loss in Southern Oceanic" (PDF), Oceanic Linguistics, 50 (1): 142–199, doi:10.1353/ol.2011.0009, S2CID   55766987
• François, Alexandre (2013), "Shadows of bygone lives: The histories of spiritual words in northern Vanuatu" (PDF), in Mailhammer, Robert (ed.), Lexical and structural etymology: Beyond word histories (PDF), Studies in Language Change, vol. 11, Berlin: DeGruyter Mouton, pp. 185–244, doi:10.1515/9781614510581.185, ISBN   978-1-61451-059-8
• François, Alexandre (2015). "The ins and outs of up and down: Disentangling the nine geocentric space systems of Torres and Banks languages" (PDF). In Alexandre François; Sébastien Lacrampe; Michael Franjieh; Stefan Schnell (eds.). The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics. pp. 137–195. hdl:1885/14819. ISBN   978-1-922185-23-5.
• François, Alexandre (2016), "The historical morphology of personal pronouns in northern Vanuatu" (PDF), in Pozdniakov, Konstantin (ed.), Comparatisme et reconstruction : tendances actuelles (PDF), Faits de Langues, vol. 47, Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 25–60, doi:10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000003, S2CID   171459404