African-Americans served on both sides of the war in the capacity of both fighting men and slaves. While the Northern United States had opened up their state militias to freed slaves, it was forbidden in the Southern United States to arm slaves as the southern planter class feared the worst from its former slaves.[citation needed] The Royal Governor of Virginia, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, issued a proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. Sir Henry Clinton, Commander in Chief of British forces, issued a similar edict in New York in 1779.[citation needed] Over 100,000 slaves escaped to the British lines; with several units such as the Ethiopian Regiment consisting entirely of black men.[citation needed] The former slaves were promised freedom, and eventually evacuated to Upper Canada after the conclusion of the war.
In response, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776.[citation needed] All-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts and many of those enrolled were slaves promised freedom for serving. At least 5,000 African-American soldiers fought as revolutionaries, while at least 20,000 served with the British.[citation needed]
War of 1812
While the Army remained primarily white, a substantial minority of the sailors in the U.S. Navy were black. In fact, during the Battle of Lake Erie African-Americans made up about one-quarter of the personnel in the American naval squadrons. While they served faithfully in the Navy, they were not allowed to serve in the Army[citation needed]. However naval service was often unpopular and to get sufficient seamen on occasion various shipyard commandants employed slaves as seamen. In his 12 July 1809 letter to the Secretary of the Navy, Commodore Thomas Tingey confirms this practice. Tingey had requested permission to employ up to 20 good slaves in the ordinary. His deputy John Cassin further elaborated, "Sometime past we are so much reduced as not able to man a boat or even to wash the decks of one of the ships. As seaman are not to obtained at the present wages, I therefore suggest to you the propriety of employing a few slaves… as I think they will …answer for many of our purposes as Seaman."[2] Numerous enslaved African Americans were listed in naval shipyards as "Landsman" or "Ordinary" Seaman. On 6 December 1845 Commodore Jesse Wilkinson Commandant of the Gosport Navy Yard confirmed this long standing practice to the Secretary of the Navy, George Bancroft, "that a majority of them [blacks] are negro slaves, and that a large portion of those employed in the Ordinary for many years, have been of that description, but by what authority I am unable to say as nothing can be found in the records of my office on the subject – These men have been examined by the Surgeon of the Yard and regularly Shipped [enlisted] for twelve months"[3][4] This subterfuge continued until the Civil War.[citation needed]
The law of 1792, which generally prohibited enlistment of blacks in the Army, became the United States Army's official policy until 1862. Due to its chronic shortage of personnel, the Navy never bothered with any restrictions on the enlistment of African-Americans.[citation needed]
Civil War
The Civil War was no doubt the pivotal moment in deciding the fate of African-Americans. A Union victory would mean a swift end to the institution of slavery. A victory for the Confederacy would continue the institution. From the beginning the war was motivated in the South to secede into a separate nation to preserve slavery, which was legal in and crucial to the economies of every Confederate state; in the North, the war was primarily to preserve the union of the United States of America which the Confederate States aimed to abandon, while also abolishing slavery everywhere in the union and preventing slavery's spread to new states and territories in the West.[5] The enlistment of blacks on either side was unheard of outside of state militias until 17 July 1862; Congress passed two acts allowing the enlistment of African-Americans. However, official enrollment occurred only after September 1862. From the moment they donned the uniforms of the Union, African-Americans proved themselves to be invaluable troops; they exceeded all expectations. At first, however, they were not employed on the battlefield; instead, they were used as labor. Initially, many, though not all, white soldiers and officers believed that black men lacked the ability to fight well. Union Gen. John C. Frémont in Missouri and Union Gen. David Hunter of South Carolina, both white, issued proclamations that emancipated slaves in their regions be permitted to enlist at the start of the war, but these orders were immediately rescinded by their superiors. In the North, black freedmen who rushed to join the Union Army were refused due to a 1792 law barring African-Americans from enlisting. These laws were rescinded in the North by the Militia Act of 1862, and ultimately by Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation.[6] African-American soldiers of the 1st Kansas Colored Volunteers silenced their critics by repulsing attacking Confederate guerrillas at the skirmish at Island Mound, Missouri in October 1862.
Although black soldiers proved themselves as reputable soldiers, discrimination in pay and other areas remained widespread. According to the Militia Act of 1862, soldiers of African descent were to receive $10.00 a month, with an optional deduction for clothing at $3.00. In contrast, white privates received $13.00 per month plus a clothing allowance of $3.50. In early June 1864, Private Sylvester Ray of the 2nd U.S. Colored Cavalry was recommended for trial because he refused to accept pay inferior to that of white soldiers.
First Lieutenant Edwin Hughes of the 2nd U.S. Colored Cavalry, recorded Private Ray as stating, ". . . none of us will sign again for seven dollars a month. . . ." Later that month, Congress granted equal pay to the U.S. Colored troops and made the action retroactive.
Following the Civil War, an effort was made to allow blacks to attend the United States Naval Academy. John H. Conyers of South Carolina was nominated by South Carolina congressman Robert Elliota and became a midshipman on 21 September 1872.[7] During his first year at the academy, Conyers was subject to severe, ongoing hazing, including verbal torment, shunning, and beatings. His classmates even attempted to drown him, among other abuses. Conyers finally yielded to the chronic academic, physical, and mental haranguing and resigned in October 1873.[8]
Philippine–American War
After the Treaty of Paris, the islands of the Philippines became a colony of the United States. When the U.S. Military started to send soldiers into the islands, most of the native population who had already been fighting their former Spanish rulers, opposed U.S. colonization and retaliated, causing an insurrection. In what would be known as the Philippine–American War, the U.S. Military also sent colored regiments and units to stop the insurrection. However, due to the discrimination of African-American soldiers, many of them defected to the Philippine Army.
One of those who defected was David Fagen, who was given the rank of captain in the Philippine Army. Fagen served in the 24th Regiment of the U.S. Army, but on 17 November 1899,[9] he defected to the Filipino army.[10] He became a successful guerrilla leader and his capture became an obsession to the U.S. military and American public. His defection was likely the result of differential treatment by American occupational forces toward black soldiers, as well as common American forces derogatory treatment and views of the Filipino occupational resistance, who were frequently referred to as "niggers" and "gugus".[11]
After two other black deserters were captured and executed, President Theodore Roosevelt announced he would stop executing captured deserters.[12] As the war ended, the US gave amnesties to most of their opponents. A substantial reward was offered for Fagen, who was considered a traitor. There are two conflicting versions of his fate: one is that his was the partially decomposed head for which the reward was claimed, the other is that he took a local wife and lived peacefully in the mountains.[13]
Interwar period
"The Navy's racial segregation policies limited African Americans' participation in World War I and, after the war, barred black enlistments altogether from 1919 to 1932. The only black sailors in uniform during that period were the ones aboard in 1919 who were allowed to stay to retire."
In 1932 black people were allowed to serve on US Navy ships as stewards and mess attendants.[14]
World War II
"17th Special" Seabees with the 7th Marines on Peleliu made national news in an official U.S. Navy press release. NARA-532537
During World War II, African-American enlistment was at an all-time high, with more than 1 million serving in the armed forces.[16] Many African-Americans believed that if they could fight and die for their country, their equality would no longer be denied. However, there was a reluctance to allow African-Americans to join combat units and many were against arming black Americans with weapons. However, their eagerness to enlist provided President Roosevelt an opportunity to meet demands and make the steps towards racial integration in the defence industry.[17]
However, the U.S. military remained entirely segregated throughout the war: the marines had no black people enlisted in combat infantry. There were black people in the Navy Seabees, and the United States Army Air Corps all-white policy gave birth to the segregated all-black unit of the Tuskegee Airmen, who trained and lived on a separate airfield and base[18] but endured this in order to prove that African-Americans had what it took to fly military aircraft. The army had only five African-American officers,[16] and these officers were never allowed to command white troops.[17] In addition, no African-American would receive the Medal of Honor during the war, while their tasks in the war were largely reserved to noncombat units, and black soldiers had to sometimes give up their seats in trains to Nazi prisoners of war.[16]
One example of African Americans receiving different treatment was the 17th Special Naval Construction Battalion and the 16th Marine Field Depot on the island of Peleliu, 15–18 September 1944. On D-Day, the 7th Marines were in a situation where they did not have enough men to man the lines and get the wounded to safety. Coming to their aid were the two companies of the 16th Marine Field Depot and the 17th Special Seabee. That night, the Japanese mounted a counter-attack at 0200 hours.
The Field Depot Marines are recorded as again having carried ammunition to the front lines on the stretchers they brought the wounded back on and picked up rifles to become infantrymen. By the time it was over nearly the entire 17th CB had volunteered alongside them. The Seabee record states that besides carrying ammunition and helping wounded they volunteered to man the line where the wounded had been, man 37mm that had lost their crews and volunteered for anything dangerous. The 17th remained with the 7th Marines until the right flank had been secured D-plus 3.[19][20][21][22][23][24] According to the Military History Encyclopedia on the Web, were it not for the "Black Marine shore party personnel" the counterattack on the 7th Marines would not have been repulsed.[25]
On Peleliu when all was done, the white shore party detachments from the 33rd and 73rd CBs received Presidential Unit Citations as did the primary shore party (1st Marine Pioneers).[26] The Commander of the 17th Special CB (segregated) received the same commendatory letter as the Company Commanders of the 7th Marine Ammo Co. (segregated) and the 11th Marine Depot Co.(segregated). Before the battle was even over, Major General Rupertus USMC wrote to each that: "THE NEGRO RACE CAN WELL BE PROUD OF THE WORK PERFORMED [by the 11th Marine Depot Company/ 7th Marine Ammunition Company/ 17th CB]. THE WHOLEHEARTED CO-OPERATION AND UNTIRING EFFORTS WHICH DEMONSTRATED IN EVERY RESPECT THAT THEY APPRECIATED THE PRIVILEGE OF WEARING A MARINE UNIFORM AND SERVING WITH THE MARINES IN COMBAT. PLEASE CONVEY TO YOUR COMMAND THESE SENTIMENTS AND INFORM THEM THAT IN THE EYES OF THE ENTIRE DIVISION THEY HAVE EARNED A "WELL DONE"."[27][28] The Department of the Navy made an official press release of a copy of the 17th CB's letter on 28 November 1944.[29]
It would take over 50 years and a presidential order before the U.S. Army reviewed their records in order to award any Medals of Honor to black soldiers. This war marked the end of segregation in the U.S. military. In 1948 President Truman signed Executive Order 9981, officially ending segregation in the military.
Korean War
Soldiers of the 24th Infantry in Korea
An estimated "600,000"[30] African Americans fought in the conflict, with "roughly 9.3%"[31] of Americans killed in the war being African American. However, that is not to say that by the Korean War racism had been eliminated within the military due to Executive Order 9981. The double V(ictory) campaign, first established in the Second World War, was considered by some to have continued into Korea, this idea being that the U.S military was fighting for victory on two fronts, "racism at home and in the service".[32] This displays the lasting racism in the military even in the years after the Second World War and Executive Order 9981, intended to abolish discrimination within the U.S military.
Vietnam War
African-American's who were involved in the Vietnam war were still subject to racism despite the actions of President Truman, the unfiarness of the draft, which negatel for the war was viewed by many in the African-American community as racist with a 1966 Newsweek poll showing this.[33]
Due to the continuing racism that remained in the United States during the Vietnam War, it was considered by some that "Black Americans"[34] who fought during Vietnam (and also Korea) were fighting, "for the right to fight",[34] this displays the approach of some African Americans who believed that fighting in for the United States would result in greater assimilation in the pursuit of equality.
Modern Military
Current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Charles Q. Brown Jr.
Despite the desegregation of the military in 1948 by Executive Order 9981, the military is still plagued by accusations of racism, in 2020 Mark Milley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff took questions from a senate committee alongisde Defence Secretary Mark Esper regarding Civilian Law Enforcement. During the session Milley condemned systemic racism in the United States Armed Forces, testifying that there is no place in the US military, "for manifestations or symbols of racism, bias or discrimination".[35]
Evidence of progress within the US military can be seen through the appointment of Air Force General Charles Q. Brown Jr as the first African American to lead a branch of the US military in 2020[36] by President Donald Trump as the 22nd Chief of Staff of the Air Force from 2020 to 2023. Following this in May 2023, he was nominated by President Joe Biden to become the 21st Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, succeeding General Milley, his term is effective as of October 1, 2023.[37]
The Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II by the US military, was fought between the United States and Japan during the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of World War II, from 15 September to 27 November 1944, on the island of Peleliu.
United States Naval Construction Battalions, better known as the Navy Seabees, form the U.S. Naval Construction Forces (NCF). The Seabee nickname is a heterograph of the initial letters "CB" from the words "Construction Battalion". Depending upon context, "Seabee" can refer to all enlisted personnel in the USN's occupational field 7 (OF-7), all personnel in the Naval Construction Force (NCF), or Construction Battalion. Seabees serve both in and outside the NCF. During World War II they were plank-holders of both the Naval Combat Demolition Units and the Underwater Demolition Teams (UDTs). The men in the NCF considered these units to be "Seabee". In addition, Seabees served as elements of Cubs, Lions, Acorns and the United States Marine Corps. They also provided the manpower for the top secret CWS Flame Tank Group. Today the Seabees have many special task assignments starting with Camp David and the Naval Support Unit at the Department of State. Seabees serve under both Commanders of the Naval Surface Forces Atlantic/Pacific fleets as well as on many base Public Works and USN diving commands.
Desegregation is the process of ending the separation of two groups, usually referring to races. Desegregation is typically measured by the index of dissimilarity, allowing researchers to determine whether desegregation efforts are having impact on the settlement patterns of various groups. This is most commonly used in reference to the United States. Desegregation was long a focus of the American civil rights movement, both before and after the US Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, particularly desegregation of the school systems and the military. Racial integration of society was a closely related goal.
Executive Order 9981 was an executive order issued on July 26, 1948, by President Harry S. Truman. It abolished discrimination "on the basis of race, color, religion or national origin" in the United States Armed Forces. The Order led to the re-integration of the services during the Korean War (1950–1953). It was a crucial event in the post-World War II civil rights movement and a major achievement of Truman's presidency. For Truman, Executive Order 9981 was inspired, in part, by an attack on Isaac Woodard who was an American soldier and African American World War II veteran. On February 12, 1946, hours after being honorably discharged from the United States Army, he was attacked while still in uniform by South Carolina police as he was taking a bus home. The attack left Woodard completely and permanently blind. President Harry S. Truman ordered a federal investigation.
The military history of African Americans spans African-American history, the history of the United States and the military history of the United States from the arrival of the first enslaved Africans during the colonial history of the United States to the present day. African Americans have participated in every war which has been fought either by or within the United States, including the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Civil War, the Spanish–American War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War.
Ethnic minorities in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II comprised about 13% of all military service members. All US citizens were equally subject to the draft, and all service members were subject to the same rate of pay. The 16 million men and women in the services included 1 million African Americans, along with 33,000+ Japanese-Americans, 20,000+ Chinese Americans, 24,674 American Indians, and some 16,000 Filipino-Americans. According to House concurrent resolution 253, 400,000 to 500,000 Hispanic Americans served. They were released from military service in 1945-46 on equal terms, and were eligible for the G.I. Bill and other veterans' benefits on a basis of equality. Many veterans, having learned organizational skills, and become more alert to the nationwide situation of their group, became active in civil rights activities after the war.
The Montford Point Marine Association (MPMA) is a nonprofit military veterans' organization, founded to memorialize the legacy of the first African Americans to serve in the United States Marine Corps. The first African American U.S. Marines were trained at Camp Montford Point, in Jacksonville, North Carolina, from 1941 to 1949.
The Civil Engineer Corps (CEC) is a staff corps of the United States Navy. CEC officers are professional engineers and architects, acquisitions specialists, and Seabee Combat Warfare Officers who qualify within Seabee units. They are responsible for executing and managing the planning, design, acquisition, construction, operation, and maintenance of the Navy's shore facilities. The Civil Engineer Corps is under the command of the Chief of Civil Engineers and Commander, Naval Facilities Engineering Systems Command. On 12 August 2022, RADM Dean VanderLey relieved RADM John W. Korka, becoming the 46th commander of NAVFAC and Chief of Civil Engineers.
Sergeant Major Gilbert "Hashmark" Johnson was one of the first African Americans to enlist in the United States Marine Corps and one of the first African American drill instructors in the Marine Corps. Johnson was known as “Hashmark” because he had more service stripes than rank stripes. He retired in 1959 after 32 years of service in the U.S. armed forces, including 17 years as a Marine.
When World War II broke out the United States Naval Construction Battalions (Seabees) did not exist. The logistics of a two theater war were daunting to conceive. Rear Admiral Moreell completely understood the issues. What needed to be done was build staging bases to take the war to the enemy, across both oceans, and create the construction force to do the work. Naval Construction Battalions were first conceived at Bureau of Yards and Docks (BuDocks) in the 1930s. The onset of hostilities clarified to Radm. Moreell the need for developing advance bases to project American power. The solution: tap the vast pool of skilled labor in the U.S. Put it in uniform to build anything, anywhere under any conditions and get the Marine Corps to train it. The first volunteers came skilled. To obtain these tradesmen, military age was waived to age 50. It was later found that several past 60 had managed to get in. Men were given advanced rank/pay based upon experience making the Seabees the highest paid group in the U.S. military. The first 60 battalions had an average age of 37.
The Navy Expeditionary Logistics Support Group (NAVELSG) is a United States Navy echelon IV component of Navy Expeditionary Combat Command, delivering logistics capabilities with active and mobilization-ready Reserve Force personnel and equipment to theater commanders.
African Americans, including former enslaved individuals, served in the American Civil War. The 186,097 black men who joined the Union Army included 7,122 officers and 178,975 enlisted soldiers. Approximately 20,000 black sailors served in the Union Navy and formed a large percentage of many ships' crews. Later in the war, many regiments were recruited and organized as the United States Colored Troops, which reinforced the Northern forces substantially during the conflict's last two years. Both Northern Free Negro and Southern runaway slaves joined the fight. Throughout the course of the war, black soldiers served in forty major battles and hundreds of more minor skirmishes; sixteen African Americans received the Medal of Honor.
The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines, is the maritime land force service branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations through combined arms, implementing its own infantry, artillery, aerial, and special operations forces. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States.
The Agana Race Riot took place in Agana, Guam, as the result of internal disputes between white and black United States Marines. The riot was one of the most serious incidents between African-American and white military personnel in the United States Armed Forces during World War II.
A Distant Shore: African Americans of D-Day is a television documentary program that was produced for the History Channel by Flight 33 Productions in 2007. Executive Producers were Douglas Cohen, Louis Tarantino and Dolores Gavin. The program was written by Douglas Cohen and produced by Samuel K. Dolan.
The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a desegregated force, made up of troops of all races working and fighting alongside each other. In 1776 and 1777, a dozen African American Marines served in the American Revolutionary War, but from 1798 to 1942, the USMC followed a racially discriminatory policy of denying African Americans the opportunity to serve as Marines. For more than 140 years, the Marines recruited primarily European Americans and Hispanic and Latino Americans, along with a few Asian Americans.
Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 133 is a United States Navy Construction Battalion, otherwise known as a Seabee battalion, homeported at the Naval Construction Battalion Center. The unit was formed during WWII as the 133rd Naval Construction Battalion. It saw action and was decommissioned shortly after the war ended. The unit was reactivated as Mobile Construction Battalion 133 for the Vietnam War and remains an active unit today.
A series of policies were formerly issued by the U.S. military which entailed the separation of white and non-white American soldiers, prohibitions on the recruitment of people of color and restrictions of ethnic minorities to supporting roles. Since the American Revolutionary War, each branch of the United States Armed Forces implemented differing policies surrounding racial segregation. Racial discrimination in the U.S. military was officially opposed by Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9981 in 1948. The goal was equality of treatment and opportunity. Jon Taylor says, "The wording of the Executive Order was vague because it neither mentioned segregation or integration." Racial segregation was ended in the mid-1950s.
US Naval Advance Bases were built globally by the United States Navy during World War II to support and project U.S. naval operations worldwide. A few were built on Allied soil, but most were captured enemy facilities or completely new. Advance bases provided the fleet with support to keep ships tactically available with repair and supply depots of facilities, rather than return them to the continental United States. Before Japan declared war on the United States the U.S. Navy had a single fleet-sized advanced base in the Territory of Hawaii at Naval Station Pearl Harbor. During the war the U.S. Navy Seabees built over 400 advance bases categorized by size. Naval bases were either Lions or Cubs while airfields were either Oaks or Acorns. Lions and Oaks were major facilities while Cubs and Acorns were minor. PT Boats typically would get a Cub and airfields with single runways were Acorns. The larger bases could provide refueling and overhaul; loading of troopship and cargo ships; and preparing amphibious assault ships. Some became major repair depots. The Seabees developed auxiliary floating drydocks were able to repair battle damage and do regular maintenance in the field saving ships trans-pacific trips for repair. A few bases also were developed to be R and R for all U.S. personnel. Most Advance Bases were built by the US Navy's Seabees in Naval Construction Battalions (CBs). At the start of the war civilian contractors were employed in construction. The Seabees in World War II built most of the airfields used by the United States Army Air Forces and United States Marine Corps, as they had the ships and cranes needed to transport the vast amount of equipment needed at the advance bases. The US Army and United States Coast Guard also operated out of many of these facilities. Seabees could build new or repair damaged runways, and with advancements in heavy bomber technology lengthen runways as needed. A few Naval Advance Bases were built for the Korean War and Vietnam War.
Peleliu Naval Base was a major United States Navy sea and airbase base on Peleliu island, one of sixteen states of Palau. The United States Marine Corps took the island in the Battle of Peleliu during World War II. Battle of Peleliu was a costly conflict that started September 15, 1944, and ended November 27, 1944. On September 30, 1944, Peleliu is declared occupied. The taking of Peleliu and Morotai gave the sea and air protection needed for the later invasion of the Philippines. US Navy Seabee built a number of facilities at Peleliu Naval Base.
References
1 2 3 Tucker, Spencer (2011). The encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: a political, social, and military history (2nded.). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN9781851099603. OCLC729629958.
↑ Wilkinson to Bancroft 6 December 1845 NARA M125 "Captains Letters" Letter Received from Captains 1805 -1885, 1 Nov 1845 – 31 Dec 1845, dated 6 Dec 1845, letter number 84, 1–2
↑ Princeton University Library, Marine Corps Chevron, Vol 3 Number 48, 2 December 1944
↑ Peleliu, battle for (Operation Stalemate II) – The Pacific War's Forgotten Battle, September–November 1944, (section: Hitting the Beach, 3rd paragraph), Military History Encyclopedia on the Web, by: Peter D Antill, Tristan Dugdale-Pointon, and Dr John Rickard,
↑ 1st Marine Pioneers, PRESIDENTIAL UNIT CITATION, First Marine Division, Reinforced, Assault and seizure of Peleliu and Ngesebus, Palau Islands, Part II. UNIT AWARDS, Section 1, Navy-Marine Corps Awards Manual(Rev 1953) p. 15 Naval History and Heritage Command,
↑ The Right to Fight:African American Marines in WWII, Peleliu and Iwo Jima, Bernard C. Naulty, Marine Corps Historical Center, Building 58, Washington Navy Yard, Washington D.C. 20374, 1974, PCN 190-003132-00
↑ African Americans at War: an Encyclopedia, Volume I, Jonathan D. Sutherland, ABC, CLIO, Santa Barbara, Ca, 2004, p. 480, ISBN1-57607-746-2
↑ Black, Helen K. (2016). "Three generations, three wars: African American veterans". The Gerontologist. 56 (1): 33–41. doi:10.1093/geront/gnv122. PMID26359249.
↑ Eldridge, Lawrence Allen. Chronicles of a Two-Front War: Civil Rights and Vietnam in the African American Press.
1 2 Phillips Boehm, Kimberley L (2014). War! What Is It Good For?. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
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