Right to exist

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The right to exist is a concept in political philosophy and international relations referring to a claimed right of a state (or nation) to exist based on its perceived political legitimacy. A state's right to exist is neither codified in international law nor, with some exceptions, recognized as a distinct legal category by the majority of international-law scholarship.

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A doctrine of fundamental rights of states — including a right to political existence, self-preservation, and continuity — was widely discussed among international lawyers from the 18th century onward. A proposed right to exist was considered but ultimately excluded from the International Law Commission's 1949 draft Declaration on Rights and Duties of States, and the draft declaration itself was never adopted by the UN General Assembly.

In his 1882 essay "What Is a Nation?", French philosopher Ernest Renan argued that a nation possesses the right to exist so long as its members demonstrate a willingness to make sacrifices for the community it represents, describing it as a "daily plebiscite." [1]

The phrase has featured prominently with regard to the legitimacy of the State of Israel in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

Political philosophy and international law

What a "state right to exist" actually is remains unclear. [2] In the past, such a state right was frequently assumed to exist; today, however, it is not a category recognized by a majority of scholars of state or international law.

In the 18th [3] and especially the 19th century, [4] a theory of international law shaped by ideas of natural law was widespread and still found adherents well into the mid-20th century, [5] according to which states, like persons, could hold fundamental rights. [6] Several proponents of this theory also assumed a state right to exist, at times even regarding it as "the essential right as such". In the scholarly literature, however, it functioned more as an empty shell from which further fundamental rights could then be derived. [7]

In the early 20th century there were also several initiatives to codify fundamental rights of states; [8] these often included a right to exist or a corresponding principle. Toward the end of these initiatives, however, this right had disappeared from the drafts: in 1948 the Organization of American States [9] instead recognized a fundamental state right "to live its own life". [10] A year later, a right to exist still appeared in several drafts for an (ultimately unadopted) declaration of fundamental rights by the United Nations. [11] However, the International Law Commission ultimately voted, seven to five, to remove it from its draft declaration, [12] with several members calling it a legal truism and others wary that affirming such a right could not be cleanly separated from the question of which entities were entitled to statehood — foreshadowing the later debate over colonized peoples' right to self-determination. Consideration of the declaration was subsequently postponed indefinitely by the General Assembly and never revisited. [13] Since the 1950s, the ideas of fundamental rights of states and of a state right to exist have also largely disappeared from works of international-law theory. [14] [15]

Accordingly, on the prevailing view, a "state right to exist" is today not a recognized right; no state thus has a right to exist that is distinct [16] [17] from the state rights to sovereignty and territorial integrity, from the right to "live in peace within secure and recognized borders free from threats or acts of force", from the group-based right of self-determination, or from the diplomatic act of the recognition of states. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23]

Notwithstanding this majority view, several contemporary scholars continue to argue for some version of a state's right to exist. Among contemporary international lawyers, Volker Epping argues that such a right exists:

All states have, vis-à-vis the community of states, a right to respect for their existence under international law. This right is to be regarded as the foundation of all other rights that a state can assert [...]. Strictly speaking, the right to exist is a right to the continuation of a state's existence, and thus primarily a right to respect for the inviolability of a state's territorial integrity and political independence. [...] From the principle of the inviolability of a state's political independence follows the right of self-defense in the case of existence-threatening acts by other states [...].

— Volker Epping, in Knut Ipsen (ed.), Völkerrecht (2024) [24]

By contrast, Jure Vidmar argues against the traditional "anthropomorphic" doctrine of fundamental rights of states, but nonetheless finds that an existing state has a narrower, non-absolute right not to be extinguished or territorially diminished by outside force, grounded in the principle of territorial integrity and reflected in the International Court of Justice's recognition of a "fundamental right of every State to survival"; he denies, however, any corresponding right of an entity to come into existence as a state. [25]

Similarly rejecting the term "right to exist" as a distinct legal category, three German legal scholars nonetheless argue that the protection of the continued existence of established states — following from sovereignty and, additionally, the right of peoples to self-determination — constitutes a bundle of legal positions that can be described, in a broader sense, as a "right to exist". [26]

Historical use

French historian Ernest Renan defended the right to exist in "What Is a Nation?" (1882). Ernest Renan 1876-84.jpg
French historian Ernest Renan defended the right to exist in "What Is a Nation?" (1882).

The concept of a right to exist for states or nations has roots in early modern political thought. In his 1795 work "Dissertation on First Principles of Government", Thomas Paine argued that representative government has a right to exist, while that hereditary government does not, grounding legitimacy in the consent and rights of the people rather than tradition or inheritance. [27]

In 1823, during the Greek War of Independence against Ottoman rule, Sir Walter Scott invoked the idea of a "right to exist in the Greek people". [28]

The idea received influential philosophical treatment in Ernest Renan's 1882 essay " What Is a Nation? ". Renan wrote that a nation has the right to exist "so long as this moral consciousness gives proof of its strength by the sacrifices which demand the abdication of the individual to the advantage of the community." He further described national existence as "a daily plebiscite, just as an individual's existence is a perpetual affirmation of life." [1]

The phrase saw increased use during the decline and breakup of the Ottoman Empire. In 1903, Eliakim and Robert Littell wrote in The Living Age : "If Turkey has a right to exist – and the Powers are very prompt to assert that she has – she possesses an equally good right to defend herself against all attempts to imperil her political existence." [29]

Examples

Armenia

The right to exist of Armenia became known as the Armenian question during the Congress of Berlin in 1878, and would again be asked during the Armenian genocide in World War I. [30]

Basque Country

According to Basque nationalists, "Euzkadi (the name of our country in our own language) is the country of the Basques with as such right to exist independently as a state as Poland or Ireland. The Basques are a very ancient people..." [31]

Israel and Palestine

In 1947, a United Nations General Assembly resolution provided for the creation of an "Arab State" and a "Jewish State" to exist within Palestine in the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. The Jewish Agency for Israel, precursor to the Israeli government, agreed to the plan, but the Palestinians rejected it and fighting broke out. After Israel's 14 May 1948 unilateral declaration of independence, support from neighboring Arab states escalated the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine into the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The legal and territorial status of Israel and Palestine is still hotly disputed in the region and within the international community.

In September 1967, the Arab leaders adopted a hardline "three nos" position in the Khartoum Resolution: no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and no negotiations with Israel. [32] In November 1967, Egyptian government spokesman Mohammed H. el-Zayyat argued that the 1949 Egyptian–Israeli Armistice Agreement [33] had already implicitly guaranteed Israel's right to exist. Pointing out that Egypt had never repudiated it, he nevertheless distinguished this acknowledgment from formal recognition of Israel. [34] [35] In the same month, Egypt accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242, which, according to data scientist Anne Alexander, also implied acceptance of Israel’s right to exist. [36] At the same time, Nasser urged Yasser Arafat and other Palestinian leaders to reject the resolution. "You must be our irresponsible arm," he said. [37] King Hussein of Jordan also acknowledged that Israel had a right to exist at this time. [38] Meanwhile, Syria rejected Resolution 242, saying that it, "refers to Israel's right to exist and it ignores the right of the [Palestinian] refugees to return to their homes." [39]

Upon assuming the premiership in 1977, Menachem Begin spoke as follows: "Our right to exist—have you ever heard of such a thing? Would it enter the mind of any Briton or Frenchman, Belgian or Dutchman, Hungarian or Bulgarian, Russian or American, to request for its people recognition of its right to exist? ... Mr. Speaker: From the Knesset of Israel, I say to the world, our very existence per se is our right to exist!" [40]

As reported by The New York Times , in 1988 Yasser Arafat pledged that the PLO would strive for a comprehensive settlement based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and that such a settlement would guarantee "the right to exist in peace and security for all". [41] In June 2009, US president Barack Obama said "Israelis must acknowledge that just as Israel's right to exist cannot be denied, neither can Palestine's." [42]

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  State of Israel
  Countries that recognize Israel
  Countries that have withdrawn their recognition of Israel
  Countries that have suspended/cut bilateral ties with Israel
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State of Palestine Countries that have recognised the State of Palestine Countries that have not recognised the State of Palestine Palestine recognition only.svg
  Countries that have recognised the State of Palestine
  Countries that have not recognised the State of Palestine

In 1993, there was an official exchange of letters between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and chairman Arafat, in which Arafat declared that "the PLO affirms that those articles of the Palestinian Covenant which deny Israel's right to exist, and the provisions of the Covenant which are inconsistent with the commitments of this letter are now inoperative and no longer valid." [43]

In 2009 Prime Minister Ehud Olmert demanded, as preconditions for further negotiations, the Palestinian Authority's acceptance of Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state, which the Palestinian Authority rejected. [44] The Knesset plenum gave initial approval in May 2009 to a bill criminalizing the public denial of Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state, with a penalty of up to a year in prison. [45] In 2011 Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas said in a speech to the Dutch Parliament that the Palestinian people recognize Israel's right to exist and they hope the Israeli government will respond by "recognizing the Palestinian state on the borders of the land occupied in 1967." [46]

Israeli government ministers Naftali Bennett and Danny Danon have repeatedly rejected the creation of a Palestinian state, with Bennett stating "I will do everything in my power to make sure they never get a state." [47] [48] In June 2016 a poll showed that only 4 out of 20 Israeli ministers accepted the state of Palestine's right to exist. [49]

John V. Whitbeck argued that recognition of Israel's right to exist by Hamas and Palestinians is "unreasonable, immoral, and impossible to meet", since it entails acceptance of the current status quo. [50] Noam Chomsky has argued that no state has the right to exist, that the concept was invented in the 1970s, and that Israel's right to exist cannot be accepted by the Palestinians. [51]

International law scholar Anthony Carty said in 2013 that "the question whether Israel has a legal right to exist might appear to be one of the most emotively charged in the vocabulary of international law and politics. It evokes immediately the 'exterminationist' rhetoric of numerous Arab and Islamic politicians and ideologues, not least the present President of Iran." (referring to then president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad) [52]

Kurdistan

Representatives of the Kurdish people regularly assert their right to exist as a state. [53] [54] [55]

Northern Ireland

The 1937 Constitution of Ireland originally claimed the national territory consisted of the whole of the island in Articles 2 and 3, denying Northern Ireland's right to exist. [56] These articles were changed such that the previous claim over the whole island of Ireland became instead an aspiration towards creating a united Ireland by peaceful means, "with the consent of a majority of the people, democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island" as part of the Good Friday Agreement ending The Troubles, a violent conflict between Irish nationalists and Ulster unionists from 1969 to 1998. The Good Friday signatories "recognise the legitimacy of whatever choice is freely exercised by a majority of the people of Northern Ireland with regard to its status, whether they prefer to continue to support the Union with Great Britain or a sovereign united Ireland." [57] [58]

North Korea

In the context of South Korea's and the United States non-recognition of the North Korean state and what the North views as a 'hostile policy' pursued by the United States, the North's government frequently accuses the United States of denying the 'right of existence' of North Korea. For instance, a 2017 Foreign Ministry statement declared, "The DPRK will redouble the efforts to increase its strength to safeguard the country's sovereignty and right to existence." [59]

Ukraine

During the Russo-Ukrainian War, Russian government officials have denied Ukraine's right to exist. A few months before the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russian president Vladimir Putin published an essay "On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians", in which he claimed there is "no historical basis" for the "idea of Ukrainian people as a nation separate from the Russians". [60] RBK Daily wrote in 2021 that the essay was required reading for the Russian military. [61] Former president Petro Poroshenko compared the essay to Hitler's Sudetenland speech. [62] Thirty-five legal and genocide experts said the essay laid "the groundwork for incitement to genocide" by "denying the existence" of Ukrainians as a people. [63] In 2024, Putin called Ukraine "an artificial state". [64]

Dmitry Medvedev, deputy chairman of the Security Council of Russia and ex-President of Russia (2008-2012), commented that Putin outlined "why Ukraine did not exist, does not exist, and will not exist". [65] He said in 2024 that Ukraine should not exist in any form and that Russia will continue to wage war against any independent Ukrainian state. [66]

Citations

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 Renan, Ernest, "What Is a Nation? Archived 2013-03-19 at the Wayback Machine ", 1882.
  2. ↑ Kolter, Max (23 April 2026). "Wer das Existenzrecht Israels leugnet, relativiert auch den Holocaust?" [Whoever denies Israel's right to exist also relativizes the Holocaust?]. Legal Tribune Online (in German). Retrieved 19 July 2026.
  3. ↑ Vec, Miloš (2011). "Grundrechte der Staaten. Die Tradierung des Natur- und Völkerrechts der Aufklärung" [Fundamental rights of states: the transmission of Enlightenment natural and international law]. Rechtsgeschichte (in German). 18. pp. 66–94, here p. 71. doi: 10.12946/rg18/066-094 .
    Compare, however, also on the mainstream of this century's research: Neff, Stephen C. (2015). "The Dormancy, Rise and Decline of Fundamental Liberties of States". Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law. 4 (3). pp. 482–500, here p. 485. doi: 10.7574/cjicl.04.03.482 .
  4. ↑ d'Aspremont, Jean (2015). "The Doctrine of Fundamental Rights of States and Anthropomorphic Thinking in International Law". Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law. 4 (3). pp. 501–520, here p. 507. doi:10.7574/cjicl.04.03.501.
  5. ↑ Vec, Miloš (2011). "Grundrechte der Staaten. Die Tradierung des Natur- und Völkerrechts der Aufklärung". Rechtsgeschichte (in German). 18. pp. 66–94, here p. 88. doi: 10.12946/rg18/066-094 .
  6. ↑ Gornig, Gilbert H. (2023). Völkerrecht (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 317. ISBN   978-3-406-81523-2. Die Lehre von den Grundpflichten und Grundrechten der Staaten übernahm das Völkerrecht – vor allem seit dem 18. Jahrhundert unter naturrechtlichem Einfluss – vom Staatsrecht, das sich mit der Lehre von den Grund- und Freiheitsrechten der Bürger beschäftigte. […] Die Verwendung des Begriffs Grundrechte im Zusammenhang mit Rechten von Staaten ist irreführend. Es ist der Versuch parallel zu den Individuen auch für Staaten einen Katalog von Rechten aufzustellen.[International law adopted the doctrine of fundamental duties and fundamental rights of states — especially since the 18th century under the influence of natural law — from constitutional law, which dealt with the doctrine of the fundamental and civil-liberty rights of citizens. […] The use of the term "fundamental rights" in connection with the rights of states is misleading. It is an attempt to establish a catalogue of rights for states, parallel to that for individuals.]
  7. ↑ Dudant, Jean-Baptiste (2023). La conservation de l'État en droit international (PhD thesis) (in French). Université Panthéon-Assas. p. 12.
  8. ↑ Carbone, Sergio M.; Schiano di Pepe, Lorenzo (2009). "States, Fundamental Rights and Duties". Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law. paras. 9–14.
  9. ↑ Text in International Law Commission (1948). Preparatory Study Concerning a Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States (PDF) (Report). New York. pp. 141–142.
  10. ↑ Dudant, Jean-Baptiste (2023). La conservation de l'État en droit international (PhD thesis) (in French). Université Panthéon-Assas. pp. 180–188.
  11. ↑ Text in International Law Commission (1948). Preparatory Study Concerning a Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States (PDF) (Report). New York. pp. 35–38, 150–154.
  12. ↑ Text in United Nations (2005). Draft Declaration on Rights and Duties of States with Commentaries. 1949 (PDF) (Report).
  13. ↑ Beall, Katherine M. (2026). "From Rights of Nations to the Right to Self-Determination". International Studies Quarterly. 70 (2). pp. 6–8. doi: 10.1093/isq/sqag037 .
  14. ↑ Joyner, Daniel H.; Roscini, Marco (2015). "Is There Any Room for the Doctrine of Fundamental Rights of States in Today's International Law? Introduction". Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law. 4 (3). pp. 467–481, here pp. 474, 477. doi: 10.7574/cjicl.04.03.467 .
  15. ↑ El Ouali, Abdelhamid (2012). Territorial Integrity in a Globalizing World: International Law and States' Quest for Survival. Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 9–10. ISBN   978-3-642-22869-8.
  16. ↑ Burchill, Scott (2020). "Israel-Palestine: Do States Have a "Right to Exist"?". Misunderstanding International Relations: A Focus on Liberal Democracies. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 54–55. ISBN   978-981-15-1936-9.
  17. ↑ Meinel, Florian (8 May 2026). "Dialektik des Sonderrechts. Zum Gesetzesentwurf einer Strafvorschrift gegen die „Leugnung des Existenzrechts Israels"" [Dialectic of special law: on the draft bill for a criminal offense of "denying Israel's right to exist"]. Verfassungsblog (in German). doi: 10.59704/db64c4d7838722f5 .
  18. ↑ Burchill, Scott (5 June 2011). "Israel has no "right to exist" – and neither does any other state". The Conversation. doi:10.64628/AA.htfytkfyh.
  19. ↑ Burchill, Scott (2020). "Israel-Palestine: Do States Have a "Right to Exist"?". Misunderstanding International Relations: A Focus on Liberal Democracies. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 53–54. ISBN   978-981-15-1936-9.
  20. ↑ Zechlin, Lothar (2021). "Antisemitismus als Rechtsbegriff: Wann ist Israelkritik antisemitisch und wann ist sie es nicht?" [Antisemitism as a legal concept: when is criticism of Israel antisemitic, and when is it not?]. Kritische Justiz (in German). 54 (1). pp. 31–46, here p. 39 (p. 9 in the freely accessible version). doi: 10.5771/0023-4834-2021-1-31 – via ResearchGate.
  21. ↑ Dugard, John (2024). "Report on Israel's "Right to Exist"". Application for the Removal from the List of Proscribed Organisations under Section 4 of the Terrorism Act 2000. Harakat al-Muqawamah al-Islamiyyah (Hamas) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department (SSHD), Vol. II: Expert Evidence.
  22. ↑ Hallward, Peter (2025). "From a Right of Self-Defense to the Fact of Conquest". Humanity. 16 (2). pp. 194–216, here p. 201. doi:10.1353/hum.00007.
  23. ↑ Körtgen, Philipp (16 July 2026). "Kai Ambos: Im Völkerrecht gibt es kein Existenzrecht" [Kai Ambos: there is no right to exist in international law](PDF). Westfalen-Blatt (in German). Retrieved 19 June 2026– via uni-goettingen.de.
  24. ↑ Ipsen, Knut, ed. (2024). Völkerrecht (in German) (8th ed.). Munich: C.H. Beck. pp. 218–219. ISBN   978-3-406-79927-3. Alle Staaten haben gegenüber der Staatengemeinschaft ein Recht auf die Achtung ihrer völkerrechtlichen Existenz. Dieses Recht ist als Grundlage aller anderen Rechte, die ein Staat geltend machen kann, anzusehen […]. Bei dem Recht auf Existenz handelt es sich genau genommen um ein Recht auf Fortdauer des Bestehens und damit in erster Linie um ein Recht auf Achtung der Unverletzlichkeit territorialer Integrität und politischer Unabhängigkeit eines Staates. […] Aus dem Grundsatz der Unverletzlichkeit der politischen Unabhängigkeit eines Staates ergibt sich das Recht auf Selbstverteidigung bei existenzbedrohenden Akten durch andere Staaten […].
  25. ↑ Vidmar, Jure (2015). "The Concept of the State and its Right of Existence". Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law. 4 (3): 547–565. doi:10.7574/cjicl.04.03.547.
  26. ↑ Schatz, Valentin; Bertram, Alice; Bartmann, Emma (2026). "Leugnung des Existenzrechts Israels: Zur Verfassungsmäßigkeit einer potenziellen Verschärfung des § 130 StGB" [Denial of Israel's right to exist: on the constitutionality of a potential tightening of § 130 of the Criminal Code]. Recht und Politik (in German). 62 (1). pp. 24–34, here pp. 26–28. doi:10.3790/rup.2025.421888.
  27. ↑ Paine, Thomas, "Dissertation on the First Principles of Government" (1795), The Life and Works of Thomas Paine, 5:221--25.
  28. 1 2 Scott, Walter, "The Greek Revolution Archived 2022-03-20 at the Wayback Machine ", Edinburgh Annual Register of 1823, p. 249.
  29. ↑ Littell, Eliakim; Littell, Robert S. (April–June 1903). "The Reign of Terror in Macedonia". The Living Age: 68.
  30. ↑ John Riddell (2014). To the Masses: Proceedings of the Third Congress of the Communist International, 1921. Brill Academic. p. 28. ISBN   978-90-04-28803-4. Archived from the original on 5 April 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  31. ↑ Nationalism, Naunihal Singh, Mittal Publications, 2006, p. 111.
  32. ↑ "Khartoum Resolution". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 20 May 2012. Retrieved 7 June 2012. The Khartoum Resolution passed by the Arab League in the wake of the 1967 war is famous for the "Three Nos" articulated in the third paragraph: No peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and no negotiations with Israel.
  33. ↑ "Egyptian-Israeli General Armistice Agreement". United Nations. 23 February 1949.
  34. ↑ Pace, Eric (9 November 1967). "Cairo Says It Guarantees "Right of Israel to Exist"". New York Times. Retrieved 20 July 2026.
  35. ↑ Whetten, Lawrence L. (1974). The Canal War: Four-Power Conflict in the Middle East . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p.  51. ISBN   0-262-23069-0.
  36. ↑ Alexander, Anne, Nasser , p. 150. ISBN   1-904341-83-7.
  37. ↑ Alexander, Anne, Nasser , p. 150. ISBN   1-904341-83-7.
  38. ↑ Dennon, Leon, "Key to Peace in Mideast", Owosso Argus-Press, 25 November 1967.
  39. ↑ Lukacs, Yehuda, Israel, Jordan, and the Peace Process Archived 5 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine , 1999. Syracuse University Press, pp. 98–99.
  40. ↑ Statement to the Knesset by Prime Minister Begin upon the presentation of his government, June 20, 1977 Archived 29 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine ", Volumes 4–5: 1977–1979, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  41. ↑ Paul Lewis (14 December 1988). "Arafat, In Geneva, Calls on Israelis To Join in Talks". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
  42. ↑ "Middle East | Obama on Israeli-Palestinian 'stalemate'". BBC News. 4 June 2009. Archived from the original on 25 December 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
  43. ↑ "You are being redirected..." archive.adl.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  44. ↑ "Olmert to Demand PA Accept Israel as Jewish State". Israel National News. 11 November 2007. Archived from the original on 13 March 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2009.
  45. ↑ Shragai, Nadav, "Knesset okays initial bill to outlaw denial of 'Jewish state' Archived 2009-05-30 at the Wayback Machine ", Haaretz, 30 May 2009.
  46. ↑ 'We recognize Israel, they should recognize Palestine' Archived 22 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine . JPost , 30 June 2011.
  47. ↑ David Remnick (21 January 2013), The settlers move to annex the West Bank—and Israeli politics. Archived 1 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine The New Yorker
  48. ↑ Azulay, Moran (28 October 2013). "Bennett: Palestinian state a mistake, will work against it". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 23 November 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
  49. ↑ Haaretz (27 June 2016). "Only Four of 20 Israeli Ministers Openly Declare Support of Two-state Solution". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  50. ↑ Whitbeck, John V. (2 February 2007). "What 'Israel's right to exist' means to Palestinians". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
  51. ↑ On the Future of Democracy Noam Chomsky interviewed by John P. Titlow Archived 24 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine , Dragonfire, June 2005
  52. ↑ Carty, Anthony (January 2013). "Israel's Legal Right to Exist and the Principle of the Self-determination of the Palestinian People?" (PDF). The Modern Law Review. 76 (1): 158–177. doi:10.1111/1468-2230.12007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
  53. ↑ Official report of debates Authors Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, Council of Europe, Council of Europe, 1994, p. 747.
  54. ↑ Democracy and Human Rights in Multicultural Societies, Matthias Koenig, Paul F. A. Guchteneire, Unesco, Ashgate Publishing, 2007, p. 95.
  55. ↑ Homeward Bound; KURDISTAN: In the Shadow of History. By Susan Meiselas, Random House, 1997, reviewed by Christopher Hitchens, Los Angeles Times, 7 December 1997.
  56. ↑ Welsh, Frank (1 January 2003). The Four Nations: A History of the United Kingdom. Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0-300-09374-2.
  57. ↑ Alan Whysall (March 2019). A Northern Ireland Border Poll (PDF) (Report). The Constitution Unit University College London. p. 4.
  58. ↑ "British-Irish Agreement: Announcement". Dáil Éireann debates. 2 December 1999. pp. Vol.512 No.2 p.3 cc.337–340. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  59. ↑ Killalea, Debra (14 September 2017). "Just what is North Korea up to now?". News.com.au. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2017.
  60. ↑ Düben, B A. "Revising History and ‘Gathering the Russian Lands’: Vladimir Putin and Ukrainian Nationhood". LSE Public Policy Review, vol. 3, no. 1, 2023
  61. ↑ "Шойгу обязал военных изучить статью Путина об Украине". РБК (in Russian). 15 July 2021. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
  62. ↑ "Статья Путина не об истории. Это – политический манифест с угрозами соседям" [Putin's article is not about history. It is a political manifesto with threats to neighbors]. 20 хвилин Украина (in Russian). Archived from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
  63. ↑ "Independent Legal Analysis of the Russian Federation's Breaches of the Genocide Convention in Ukraine and the Duty to Prevent" (PDF). New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy; Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights. 27 May 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  64. ↑ Vock, Ido (9 February 2024). "Tucker Carlson interview: Fact-checking Putin's 'nonsense' history". BBC News.
  65. ↑ Luxmoore, Matthew (9 February 2024). "What Did Putin Gain From Sitting Down With Tucker Carlson?". The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 23 February 2024.
  66. ↑ "Putin Ally Says There's '100 Percent' Chance of Future Russia-Ukraine Wars". Newsweek . 17 January 2024.
  67. ↑ Paine, Thomas, (1791) The Rights of Man
  68. ↑ Root, Elihu, "The Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Nations Adopted by the American Institute of International Law Archived 2016-03-15 at the Wayback Machine " The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 10, No. 2, (Apr. 1916), pp. 211–221.
  69. ↑ "All Germans rounded up to vote". The Guardian . London. 8 March 2006. Archived from the original on 25 November 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.

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