Sarcophaga barbata

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Sarcophaga barbata
Sarcophaga.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Sarcophagidae
Genus: Sarcophaga
Species:
S. barbata
Binomial name
Sarcophaga barbata
Thomson, 1869
Synonyms
  • Sarcophaga argyrostoma (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830)
  • Sarcophaga argentina (Brethes, 1916)
  • Sarcophaga chivensis (Zimin, 1928)
  • Sarcophaga falculata (Pandelle, 1896)
  • Sarcophaga persicae (Senior-White, 1924)
  • Mesothyrsia henschiana (Enderlein, 1928)
  • Myophora argyrostoma (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830)
  • Ptilocnema henseliana (Enderlein, 1928)

Sarcophaga barbata is a species from the genus Sarcophaga and the family of flesh fly, Sarcophagidae. It is most closely related to S. plinthopyga, S. securifera, and S. bullata of the same genus. The species was first discovered by Eugene Thomson in 1868. [1] S. barbata has also been found in the Middle East near carcasses, where the larvae can thrive. [2] S. barbata is also a prominent organism in scientific research and has been used to study L-3-glycerophosphate oxidation and location within the mitochondria . [3]

Contents

Morphology

The body of S. barbata is grey in color, spanning from 10 to 14 mm in length. [4] S. barbata has red compound eyes. [4] Its thorax displays three prominent black stripes, with another less distinct stripe on each side. Its abdomen is smaller in width than the thorax and has four sections, featuring a checkerboard pattern. Two scales are found at the base of edge of the species' wings, called epaulet and subepaulet. [4] The epaulet is situated close to the thorax and usually black, while the subepaulet is located further out and white in color. [4] The distinction of these scales is what separates it from other members of its family.

Male S. barbata are on average smaller than the females and have stripes that are closer together. Below the section of the abdomen, males have the hypopygium, which is the genital segments. At the end of the genital segments is the anus, which is flanked by two curved forceps that lack lateral motion. [4] The triangular accessory plate lies just outside of the forceps with the posterior and anterior claspers near the median of the plate. The two-jointed penis is located between the claspers next to the forceps. Males also possess combs on their hind legs composed of a close arrangement of short, blunt bristles. These combs are a distinctive feature of males. [4]

Distribution and habitat

Sarcophaga barbata can be found in North American and the Middle East year round. These flies prefer areas with direct sunlight and warmer climates. S. barbata are usually found in dead and rotting meat and animal excrement, which are prime environments for them. This is because their larvae are facultative parasites, as they feed on organic tissue and use the hosts' oxygen reserve. [2] Such parasitic feeding causes dermal myiasis in humans and animals. [4]

Life cycle

The life cycle of S. barbata takes between 12 and 60 days. [2] It involves the larva stage, the pupa stage, and the adult stage. The fly is viviparous, which means the female gives birth directly to live maggots, the larvae, as opposed to giving birth to eggs that later form into larvae.

Embryo

The embryo develops inside the female body and is deposited through the ovipositor into the food source, which is usually decaying meat or animal excrement, with a still intact egg membrane. [4] Some of the deposits might be unfertilized eggs and thus will degrade into the food source. The larvae will remain in their egg membranes until they are totally developed, at which point they will break out and begin to feed. [2]

Larva

Fully developed larvae tend to be about 3.6 mm in length and of normal musocid shape. The smallest width is at the anterior end and tapers out reaching a stable cylindrical shape in the middle. [2] The anal and genital areas are still not fully developed and are less prominent, but they have developed tubercles. The larvae contains irregularly spaced spines that form rings at the posterior and the anterior ends of each segment. The spine of the larvae becomes lighter closer to the posterior region while maintaining consistent color on both sides. The average female has 60 larvae, but can have as few as 6 larvae. [2]

Pupa

The pupa puffs up as it develops over time. All cells of one region of the body aggregate and puff up together. [5] However, there is no synchrony between regions of the body. The thoracic region puffs up one day before the abdominal region. This puffing pattern is related to the development of the pupa and is not hormonally controlled. After the pupa is fully developed and after eclosion has occurred, the cuticle of the newly emerged fly is darkened, which requires a hormonal cue that is delivered by the emergence. [5]

Genetics

The ovaries of S. barbata experiences and under-replication of rDNA resulting in half the amount of rDNA as compared to the brain. [6] A similar result is found in Drosophila hydei, which displayed under-replication in both nurse and follicle cells. This degree of under-replication, 47%, is still less than that in polytene chromosomes of the salivary glands of Drosophila melanogaster , which is 20%. [6] This under-replication of rDNA is in stark contrast to the oocyte nuclei of most species of animals, which show an increase rRNA synthesis during the growth period. Under-replication is thought to be a product of asynchronous replication during mitosis. [6] This made an important contribution to scientific research because it indicated a possible energy-saving mechanism employed by certain organisms during development, which is currently being studied.

Eye mutation

Wild type S. barbata possess a red eye color, but the recessive autosomal gene ivory causes a white eye color. [7] The mutation blocks the formylkynurenine pathway, which produces xanthommatin. Xanthomattin is a yellow-brown pigment in its primary form, and its reduced form is red, which gives the flies their red eye color. These flies can display an intermediate eye color if they ingest xanthommatin precursors. Ivory gene mutation is homologous to the D. melanogaster mutation vermillion and the M. domestica mutation green. [7] S. barbata with ivory are less viable than wild-type. [7]

Spatial perception

An experiment to test the spatial perception of the larvae and its effect on pupation can be performed in vitro. As the larvae are placed in the test tubes to explore the container thoroughly, they relate visual cues to tactile stimuli and distinguish between a closed and an open container. [8] If the container is open, there is no delay in pupation and the pupa faces the open end. If the container is closed, it is delayed by four to five days only because the tactile stimuli is present. Pupation delay in response to a closed container stopped after the dimensions of the container increases beyond the limit of the larvae's spatial perception. [8]

Relation to humans

Forensic importance

Sarcophaga barbata is one of the dominant necrophagous flesh fly species. Forensic entomology provides data about the interval of time that has passed postmortem and even circumstances surrounding the death. [9] They are specifically useful since they deposit maggots directly onto the decomposing body, their larger, visible size, and difference in activity during different stages. [9] Their main limitation, however, is due to lack of information surrounding their geographic distribution and taxonomic features.

Biological research

Sarcophaga barbata was used to study the oxidation of L-3-glycerophosphate in mitochondria. [3] It is found that the L-3-glycerophosphate does not enter the mitochondrial matrix, unlike pyruvate. This helps locate the L-3-glycerophosphate-flavoprotein oxidoreductase, which is on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. [3]

Related Research Articles

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Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including horse-flies, crane flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes and others, although only about 125,000 species have been described.

<i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> Species of fruit fly

Drosophila melanogaster is a species of fly in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly", "pomace fly", or "banana fly". In the wild, D. melanogaster are attracted to rotting fruit and fermenting beverages, and are often found in orchards, kitchens and pubs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pupa</span> Life stage of some insects undergoing transformation

A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their life cycle, the stages thereof being egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The processes of entering and completing the pupal stage are controlled by the insect's hormones, especially juvenile hormone, prothoracicotropic hormone, and ecdysone. The act of becoming a pupa is called pupation, and the act of emerging from the pupal case is called eclosion or emergence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myiasis</span> Infestation of parasitic maggots

Myiasis, also known as flystrike or fly strike, is the parasitic infestation of the body of a live animal by fly larvae (maggots) that grow inside the host while feeding on its tissue. Although flies are most commonly attracted to open wounds and urine- or feces-soaked fur, some species can create an infestation even on unbroken skin and have been known to use moist soil and non-myiatic flies as vector agents for their parasitic larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polytene chromosome</span> Large chromosome with thousands of DNA strands

Polytene chromosomes are large chromosomes which have thousands of DNA strands. They provide a high level of function in certain tissues such as salivary glands of insects.

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Phlebotomus is a genus of "sand flies" in the Diptera family Psychodidae. In the past, they have sometimes been considered to belong in a separate family, Phlebotomidae, but this alternative classification has not gained wide acceptance.

<i>Eristalis tenax</i> Species of fly

Eristalis tenax, the common drone fly, is a common, migratory, cosmopolitan species of hover fly. It is the most widely distributed syrphid species in the world, and is known from all regions except the Antarctic. It has been introduced into North America and is widely established. It can be found in gardens and fields in Europe and Australia. It has also been found in the Himalayas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imaginal disc</span> One of the parts of a holometabolous insect larva

An imaginal disc is one of the parts of a holometabolous insect larva that will become a portion of the outside of the adult insect during the pupal transformation. Contained within the body of the larva, there are pairs of discs that will form, for instance, the wings or legs or antennae or other structures in the adult. The role of the imaginal disc in insect development was first elucidated by Jan Swammerdam.

<i>Bactrocera dorsalis</i> Species of insect

Bactrocera dorsalis, previously known as Dacus dorsalis and commonly referred to as the oriental fruit fly, is a species of tephritid fruit fly that is endemic to Southeast Asia. It is one of the major pest species in the genus Bactrocera with a broad host range of cultivated and wild fruits. Male B. dorsalis respond strongly to methyl eugenol, which is used to monitor and estimate populations, as well as to annihilate males as a form of pest control. They are also important pollinators and visitors of wild orchids, Bulbophyllum cheiri and Bulbophyllum vinaceum in Southeast Asia, which lure the flies using methyl eugenol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White (mutation)</span>

white, abbreviated w, was the first sex-linked mutation discovered, found in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In 1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan and Lilian Vaughan Morgan collected a single male white-eyed mutant from a population of Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies, which usually have dark brick red compound eyes. Upon crossing this male with wild-type female flies, they found that the offspring did not conform to the expectations of Mendelian inheritance. The first generation produced 1,237 red-eyed offspring and three white-eyed male flies. The second generation produced 2,459 red-eyed females, 1,011 red-eyed males, and 782 white-eyed males. Further experimental crosses led them to the conclusion that this mutation was somehow physically connected to the "factor" that determined sex in Drosophila. This led to the discovery of sex linkage, in which the gene for a trait is found on a sex chromosome. Morgan named this trait white, now abbreviated w. Flies possessing the white allele are frequently used to introduce high school and college students to genetics.

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<i>Sarcophaga pernix</i> Species of fly

Sarcophaga pernix, also known as the red-tailed flesh fly, is a fly in the Sarcophagidae family. This fly often breeds in carrion and feces, making it a possible vector for disease. The larvae of this species can cause myiasis, as well as accidental myiasis. It is potentially useful in forensic entomology.

<i>Sarcophaga bullata</i> Species of fly

Sarcophaga bullata, or the grey flesh fly, is a species of fly belonging to the family Sarcophagidae. It varies in size from small to large, 8 to 17 millimeters in length and is very similar in appearance and behavior to a closely related species, Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis. S. bullata is a common scavenger species in the Eastern United States, but is found throughout the Nearctic region. Identification down to the species level in the family Sarcophagidae is notably difficult and relies primarily on the male genitalia. Though limited information is available regarding S. bullata, it has gained increasing recognition in the field of forensic entomology as a forensically relevant fly species, as it may be among the first species to colonize human remains. In these instances, recovered maggots may be analyzed for post-mortem interval (PMI) estimations, which may be used as evidence in courts of law. Current studies regarding S. bullata have revealed a maternal effect operating in these flies that prevents pupal diapause under certain environmental conditions, which is an important factor to be considered during forensic analyses.

<i>Synthesiomyia nudiseta</i> Species of fly

Synthesiomyia nudiseta is one of the largest flies in the family Muscidae. The fly has a pair of forewings; the paired hind wings have been reduced to halteres that help with stability and movement during flight. Key characteristics of this species include plumose segmented aristae, well-developed calypters, and sternopleural bristles. Synthesiomyia nudiseta is a forensically important species because it is necrophilous and can therefore help determine the time of colonization for the post mortem interval with its known life cycle.

Sarcophaga crassipalpis is a species of flesh flies (insects in the family Sarcophagidae.

Sarcophaga aldrichi, the friendly fly or large flesh fly, is a fly that is a parasitoid of the forest tent caterpillar. It strongly resembles the house fly but is in a different family, the Sarcophagidae, or flesh-flies. It is a little larger than the house fly, and has the same three black stripes on its thorax. It has red eyes, a grayish body, and a checkered abdomen.

<i>Drosophila hydei</i> Species of fly

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Sarcotoxins are a group of antibacterial peptides present in the flesh fly belonging to the genus Sarcophaga. The proteins are present in the haemolymph of the flesh fly. The first protein, called sarcotoxin 1A, was discovered in 1983 from Sarcophaga peregrina by Masayuki Okada and Shunji Natori at the University of Tokyo, Japan.

Sarcophaga peregrina is a species of flesh fly belonging to the family Sarcophagidae. They easily breed, multiply and spread in human habitation, from garbage, faeces and livestock manures. In many regions, they are health concerns as they are active vectors of infectious diseases such as myiasis in humans. Due to their close contact with human activities, they are considered as forensically important insects. They can be used for molecular analysis of the time of postmortem intervals. They are also occasionally parasitic in other invertebrates. They produce a group of antibacterial peptide called sarcotoxins. The first of such protein, sarcotoxin 1A, was determined in 1983 by Masayuki Okada and Shunji Natori at the University of Tokyo, Japan.

<i>Cochliomyia macellaria</i> Species of fly

Cochliomyia macellaria, also known as the secondary screwworm, is a species of blow fly in the family Calliphoridae. These screwworms are referred to as "secondary" because they typically infest wounds after invasion by primary myiasis-causing flies. While blow flies may be found in every terrestrial habitat, C. macellaria is primarily found in the United States, American tropics, and sometimes southern Canada. They are most common in the southeastern United States in states like Florida. C. macellaria have a metallic greenish-blue thorax and a red-orange head and eyes. These adult blowflies range from 5–8 mm in size.

References

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