Second scholasticism,[1] also called Modern scholasticism, is the period of revival of scholastic system of philosophy and theology, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The scientific culture of second scholasticism surpassed its medieval source (Scholasticism) in the number of its proponents, the breadth of its scope, the analytical complexity, sense of historical and literary criticism, and the volume of editorial production, most of which remains hitherto little explored.
17th century classroom at the University of Salamanca
Scholasticism played a significant role during the Counter-Reformation, a movement within the Catholic Church that emerged in response to the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. During this period, spanning roughly from the mid-16th to the mid-17th centuries, scholastic thinkers made several important contributions in the theological and philosophical realms to bolster the Catholic Church's position. Some of these contributions include: The defense of Catholic Tradition, Scholasticism, in the Counter-Reformation, focused on defending and preserving Catholic tradition against challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation. Scholastics advocated for the authority of the Church and tradition in interpreting Scriptures, in contrast to the individualistic interpretations promoted by some Protestant reformers. Doctrinal Clarification: Scholastic thinkers worked on clarifying Catholic doctrines, providing detailed and systematic explanations on key theological matters. This involved the elaboration of theological treatises and the systematization of Catholic theology, helping strengthen the internal coherence of Church teachings. Theological Controversies: Scholasticism during the Counter-Reformation addressed various theological controversies that arose in the context of the Reformation. For example, it focused on debates regarding justification, grace, and sacraments, presenting arguments supporting Catholic positions and refuting Protestant objections. Development of Philosophy and Moral Theology: Scholastics contributed to the development of philosophy and moral theology. They explored ethical and moral questions within a philosophical framework, seeking to provide ethical and moral guidance in a context where Catholic practices and teachings were being questioned. Support for Catholic Education: Many scholastic thinkers were associated with Catholic educational institutions, such as the University of Salamanca, the University of Alcalá, the University of Coimbra or the University of Leuven, where they taught and promoted Catholic education. The training of Catholic priests and scholars was considered essential to counteract Reformed ideas and maintain Catholic orthodoxy. In summary, Scholasticism played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation by offering intellectual and systematic defense of the Catholic faith, addressing theological controversies, and contributing to the development of theology and philosophy within the Catholic framework. These efforts helped consolidate and strengthen the Catholic Church's position during a period of significant challenges.
The emergence of the second scholasticism during Renaissance in the University of Salamanca was highly determined by the influence of Francisco de Vitoria and the Dominican order, which during the first half of the 16th century provided to the Second Scholasticism with some main figures, such as aforementioned Francisco de Vitoria, as well as Domingo de Soto, and an orientation focused on law, economy, theology and other academic disciplines that linked scholasticism with topics and problems more typical of modern societies.
Along with these more orthodox authors as far as the scholastic current is concerned, we must also highlight the thought of other philosophers close to scholasticism who experimented with new ideas, "independent" thinkers like Sebastián Izquierdo, Juan Caramuel y Lobkowicz, Kenelm Digby, Raffaello Aversa etc., that mixed the ideas of second scholasticism with the new ideas of enlightment.
Second scholasticism in Protestant ambit
Scholasticism, as a predominant philosophical and theological tradition in the Middle Ages, influenced the context of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation in various ways. Although the reformers often criticized Scholasticism in their quest to return to biblical sources, some important contributions of this tradition to the Reformation can be identified: Scholasticism provided a systematic framework for theology, allowing reformers to structure and organize their own doctrines logically and coherently. This was particularly evident in the formulation of confessions of faith and catechisms that defined Protestant beliefs. Reformers employed scholastic methods of argumentation and debate to defend their theological views and refute positions held by the Catholic Church. This methodology influenced the creation of polemical writings and the systematic presentation of Reformed doctrines. Although reformers criticized certain aspects of Aristotelian logic used by Scholasticism, they still incorporated elements of logical reasoning into their theology. Logic and reason were used to establish theological arguments and present doctrines clearly and coherently. Scholasticism influenced the elaboration of systematic theologies within Protestantism. Reformers like John Calvin and Martin Luther, while critical of certain aspects of Scholasticism, systematically organized their teachings, creating theological systems that addressed various doctrinal issues. Despite the reformers' emphasis on returning to the Scriptures as the primary source of authority, they used terms and philosophical categories developed in the scholastic tradition. These terms were employed to express Reformed doctrines more precisely and to engage in theological dialogues of the time. Despite criticisms and a break with certain aspects of Scholasticism, the reformers benefited from the intellectual structure provided by this tradition. They used methods and tools from Scholasticism to articulate and defend their own interpretations of the faith, contributing to the development of theological thought in the context of the Protestant Reformation.
Among the tendencies of scholastic thought typical of the Protestant environment, two must be highlighted: The Reformed Orthodoxy which refers to the theological tradition that flourished in Reformed churches during the 16th and 17th centuries, following the Protestant Reformation led by figures such as John Calvin and Martin Luther. This period of consolidation and theological articulation sought to systematically establish the fundamental beliefs of the Reformed tradition. In this context, confessions of faith and catechisms were formulated to express the Reformed doctrines clearly and systematically. Notable examples include the Westminster Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism. These documents became doctrinal standards and guides for teaching in Reformed churches. "Reformed Orthodoxy" was characterized by a rigorous focus on dogmatic theology, aiming to systematize key doctrines of the Christian faith. This included soteriology (doctrine of salvation), the doctrine of God, Christology, Pneumatology, and other areas of systematic theology. Emphasis was placed on coherence and logical structure in formulating beliefs. Theological debates and controversies arose during this period, especially in areas such as predestination and the relationship between divine grace and human responsibility. These debates led to the drafting of documents like the Canons of Dort in response to Arminian controversies. Key theologians in this movement include Theodore Beza, Zacharias Ursinus, Francis Turretin, and others. Each made significant contributions to the development and formulation of Reformed theology during this period. "Reformed Orthodoxy" left a lasting legacy in Reformed churches, influencing theology and the identity of these communities to this day. The confessions and catechisms drafted during this period remain important in teaching and preaching in many Reformed churches.
The Lutheran Orthodoxy, spanning the late 16th to the mid-18th centuries, represents a pivotal era within Lutheranism, characterized by efforts to systematize and define Lutheran doctrines in response to theological challenges and controversies that arose after Martin Luther's death. During this period, Lutheran theologians undertook the task of articulating and defending Lutheran beliefs through the lens of systematic theology. Central to this effort was the production of confessional documents like the Formula of Concord. These documents were instrumental in clarifying and unifying Lutheran teachings, particularly on contested issues such as the Lord's Supper, predestination, and free will. Theological discourse during Lutheran Orthodoxy was marked by the engagement with scholastic methods and the development of systematic theology. This emphasis on academic rigor sought to provide a logical and structured framework for Lutheran doctrines, enhancing clarity in theological expression. A notable feature of Lutheran Orthodoxy was the integration of Aristotelian philosophy into theological discussions. Theologians utilized philosophical concepts to explain and defend Lutheran doctrines, resulting in a more comprehensive understanding of theological principles. In response to the intellectual challenges of the time, Lutheran Orthodoxy witnessed the establishment of educational institutions. Lutheran universities and schools were founded to train theologians and pastors, contributing significantly to the preservation and transmission of Lutheran theology. In essence, Lutheran Orthodoxy played a crucial role in consolidating and preserving Lutheran theology amidst theological debates. This period contributed to the establishment of a systematic doctrinal framework, educational institutions, and liturgical practices, shaping the identity and theology of Lutheranism, which continues to resonate in contemporary expressions of the Lutheran tradition.
The golden age of second scholasticism was between the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th century; it remained largely in control of university curricula in philosophy.[2] Second scholasticism began to decline under the influence of philosophers writing in vernacular languages. These philosophers were not entirely free from the impact of second scholasticism—which indeed played a significant role for many of them—but sought alternatives to the dominant Aristotelian thought nevertheless. Notable figures such as Descartes, Pascal, and Locke emerged as challengers. Second scholasticism also faced competition from more experimental and mathematical approaches to science promoted by the Scientific Revolution.
During the Enlightenment of the 18th century, second scholasticism remained largely dormant outside the Spanish empire and Portugal. Despite this, scholastics like Francisco Suárez, Juan de Mariana, and Luis de Molina retained influence for an extended period. Despite its decline, the second half of the 17th century and the early 18th century saw the emergence of influential authors who had a minor impact in the Catholic realm. Rodrigo de Arriaga, Juan de Sorozábal, Francisco Palanco, Miguel de Elizalde, and Diego Avendaño, among others, contributed to this period. Their impact did not match the extensive influence of scholastic authors from the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century.
Influenced by Emmanuel Maignan, philosophers like Jaime Servera and Tomás Vicente Tosca y Mascó attempted to provide a new innovative impulse to modern scholasticism. They aimed to synthesize the works and ideas of previous philosophers such as Suárez and Gabriel Vásquez with the new scientific discoveries.
In some Iberian universities, the modern scholastic culture persisted strongly into the 19th century, setting the stage for the emergence of Neo-scholasticism in the 19th century. Despite this, during the 18th century, modern scholasticism faced significant criticism from scholars associated with the Bourbon dynasty. The cultural shift in Spanish intellectual culture, transitioning from the conservative views of second scholasticism to the new ideas of French and British philosophers during the Enlightenment, further impacted modern scholasticism. Additionally, a notable decline occurred after the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767.
Interest in the thought of the modern scholastics has been recently revived by the journal Studia Neoaristotelica.
Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon Aristotelianism and the Ten Categories. Christian scholasticism emerged within the monastic schools that translated scholastic Judeo-Islamic philosophies, and "rediscovered" the collected works of Aristotle. Endeavoring to harmonize his metaphysics and its account of a prime mover with the Latin Catholic dogmatic trinitarian theology, these monastic schools became the basis of the earliest European medieval universities, and thus became the bedrock for the development of modern science and philosophy in the Western world. Scholasticism dominated education in Europe from about 1100 to 1700. The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in Italy, France, Portugal, Spain and England.
Orthodoxy is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churches accept different creeds and councils. Such differences of opinion have developed for numerous reasons, including language and cultural barriers. Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy are sometimes referred to simply as "Orthodoxy". In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all the traditions and commandments as legislated in the Torah are often called Orthodox Jews. Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam".
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Christian theology:
Systematic theology, or systematics, is a discipline of Christian theology that formulates an orderly, rational, and coherent account of the doctrines of the Christian faith. It addresses issues such as what the Bible teaches about certain topics or what is true about God and his universe. It also builds on biblical disciplines, church history, as well as biblical and historical theology. Systematic theology shares its systematic tasks with other disciplines such as constructive theology, dogmatics, ethics, apologetics, and philosophy of religion.
Protestantism originated from the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. The term Protestant comes from the Protestation at Speyer in 1529, where the nobility protested against enforcement of the Edict of Worms which subjected advocates of Lutheranism to forfeit all of their property. However, the theological underpinnings go back much further, as Protestant theologians of the time cited both Church Fathers and the Apostles to justify their choices and formulations. The earliest origin of Protestantism is controversial; with some Protestants today claiming origin back to people in the early church deemed heretical such as Jovinian and Vigilantius.
Lutheranism as a religious movement originated in the early 16th century Holy Roman Empire as an attempt to reform the Catholic Church. The movement originated with the call for a public debate regarding several issues within the Catholic Church by Martin Luther, then a professor of Bible at the young University of Wittenberg. Lutheranism soon became a wider religious and political movement within the Holy Roman Empire owing to support from key electors and the widespread adoption of the printing press. This movement soon spread throughout northern Europe and became the driving force behind the wider Protestant Reformation. Today, Lutheranism has spread from Europe to all six populated continents.
Neo-scholasticism is a revival and development of medieval scholasticism in Catholic theology and philosophy which began in the second half of the 19th century.
Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism, which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord and ended at the Age of Enlightenment. Lutheran orthodoxy was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation.
Catholic moral theology is a major category of doctrine in the Catholic Church, equivalent to a religious ethics. Moral theology encompasses Catholic social teaching, Catholic medical ethics, sexual ethics, and various doctrines on individual moral virtue and moral theory. It can be distinguished as dealing with "how one is to act", in contrast to dogmatic theology which proposes "what one is to believe".
Catholic dogmatic theology can be defined as "a special branch of theology, the object of which is to present a scientific and connected view of the accepted doctrines of the Christian faith."
In 16th-century Christianity, Protestantism came to the forefront and marked a significant change in the Christian world.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Christianity:
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes justification of sinners through faith alone, the teaching that salvation comes by unmerited divine grace, the priesthood of all believers, and the Bible as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice. The five solae summarize the basic theological beliefs of mainstream Protestantism.
Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century until after the Renaissance in the 13th and 14th centuries. Medieval philosophy, understood as a project of independent philosophical inquiry, began in Baghdad, in the middle of the 8th century, and in France and Germany, in the itinerant court of Charlemagne in Aachen, in the last quarter of the 8th century. It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the ancient culture developed in Greece and Rome during the Classical period, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine with secular learning. This is one of the defining characteristics in this time period. Understanding God was the focal point of study of the philosophers at that time, Muslim and Christian alike.
Richard A. Muller is an American historical theologian.
Philosophy in Malta refers to the philosophy of Maltese nationals or those of Maltese descent, whether living in Malta or abroad, whether writing in their native Maltese language or in a foreign language. Though Malta is not more than a tiny European island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, for the last six centuries its very small population happened to come in close contact with some of Europe's main political, academic and intellectual movements. Philosophy was among the interests fostered by its academics and intellectuals.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Protestantism:
Reformed orthodoxy or Calvinist orthodoxy was an era in the history of Calvinism in the 16th to 18th centuries. Calvinist orthodoxy was paralleled by similar eras in Lutheranism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation. Calvinist scholasticism or Reformed scholasticism was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Calvinist Orthodoxy.
Protestant scholasticism or Protestant orthodoxy was academic theology practiced by Protestant theologians using the scholastic method during the era of Calvinist and Lutheran orthodoxy from the 16th to 18th centuries. Protestant scholasticism developed out of the need to clearly define and defend church doctrine against the Catholic Church and other Protestant churches. It refers to both Lutheran scholasticism and Reformed scholasticism. Anglicanism never developed a scholastic theology; however, Anglican writers in the 1600s studied early Christian writings to prove that Anglicanism had faithfully followed the teachings and practices of the early Church.
Catholic–Protestant relations refers to the social, political and theological relations and dialogue between Catholic Christians and Protestant Christians.
References
↑ Manlio Bellomo, The Common Legal Past of Europe, 1000–1800, p. 225
↑ R. Ariew and D. Gabbay, "The scholastic background", in Cambridge History of Seventeenth Century Philosophy, ed. D. Garber and M. Ayers (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998), ch. 15.
Bibliography
Manlio Bellomo, The Common Legal Past of Europe, 1000-1800, Washington, D.C. The Catholic University of America Press, 1995.
Josef Bordat and Johanna M. Baboukis, "Late Scholasticism". In: Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History. New York 2009.
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