Soda lime

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Soda lime canister used in anaesthetic machines to act as a carbon dioxide scrubber. Dragersorb Soda Lime.jpg
Soda lime canister used in anaesthetic machines to act as a carbon dioxide scrubber.

Soda lime, a mixture of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and calcium oxide (CaO), is used in granular form within recirculating breathing environments like general anesthesia and its breathing circuit, submarines, rebreathers, and hyperbaric chambers and underwater habitats. Its purpose is to eliminate carbon dioxide (CO
2) from breathing gases, preventing carbon dioxide retention and, eventually, carbon dioxide poisoning. [1] [2] The creation of soda lime involves treating slaked lime with a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.

Contents

Chemical components

The primary components of soda lime include: calcium oxide (CaO) constituting approximately 75%, water (H
2O) accounting for around 20%, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) making up about 3%, and potassium hydroxide (KOH) present at approximately 0.1%.

Anaesthesia

During general anaesthesia, a patient's exhaled gases, containing carbon dioxide, pass through an anaesthesia machine's breathing circuit, containing a soda lime canister filled with soda lime granules. [1] Medical-grade soda lime includes an indicating dye that changes color when it reaches its carbon dioxide absorption capacity. To ensure proper functioning, a carbon dioxide scrubber (or soda lime canister) should not be used if the indicating dye is activated. Standard anesthesia machines typically contain up to 2 kilograms (4.4 lb) of soda lime granules.[ citation needed ]

Recent carbon dioxide absorbents have been developed to minimize the risk of toxic by-product formation resulting from the interaction between the absorbent and inhaled anesthetics, like halothane. Some absorbents, including those made from lithium hydroxide, are available for this purpose.[ citation needed ]

Space flight

In space flights, lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is used as a carbon dioxide absorbent due to its low molecular weight (Na: 23 g/mol; Li: 7 g/mol), saving weight during launch. During the Apollo 13 flight, high carbon dioxide levels in the Lunar Module led the crew to adapt spare absorbent cartridges from the Apollo capsule to the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) system.

Rebreather use

Exhaled gas undergoes a crucial process: it must pass through a carbon dioxide scrubber where carbon dioxide is absorbed before the gas is circulated for breathing again. In rebreathers, this scrubber is integrated into the breathing loop. [2] [3] However, in larger settings like recompression chambers or submarines, a fan is employed to ensure a continuous flow of gas through the scrubbing canister. Notably, the use of color indicating dye in United States Navy fleet applications ceased in 1996 due to concerns about potential chemical releases into the circuit. [4]

Chemical reaction

The overall chemical reaction is:

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + heat (in the presence of water)

Each mole of CO2 (44 g) reacts with one mole of calcium hydroxide (74 g) and produces one mole of water (18 g).

The reaction can be considered as a strong-base-catalysed, water-facilitated reaction. [5]

The reaction mechanism of carbon dioxide with soda lime can be decomposed in three elementary steps:

1) (CO2 dissolves in water – slow and rate-determining),
2) (bicarbonate formation at high pH),
3) (NaOH recycled to step 2 – hence a catalyst).

This sequence of reactions explains the catalytic role played by sodium hydroxide in the system and why soda lime is faster in chemical reactivity than calcium hydroxide alone. [6] The moist sodium hydroxide impregnates the surface and the porosity of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area. [7] It reacts much more quickly and so contributes to a faster elimination of the carbon monoxide from the rebreathing circuit. The formation of water by the reaction and the moisture from the respiration also act as a solvent for the reaction. Reactions in aqueous phase are generally faster than between a dry gas and a dry solid. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit diving rebreathers and in the anesthesia breathing circuit in anesthesia systems. [8] [9]

The same catalytic effect by the alkali hydroxides (function of the Na2Oeq content of cement) also contributes to the carbonation of portlandite by atmospheric CO2 in concrete although the rate of propagation of the reaction front is there essentially limited by the carbon dioxide diffusion within the concrete matrix less porous. [10]

Analogy with the alkali–silica reaction

A similar reaction to above, also catalysed by sodium hydroxide, is the alkali–silica reaction, a slow degradation process causing the swelling and the cracking of concrete containing aggregates rich in reactive amorphous silica. In a very similar way, sodium hydroxide greatly facilitates the dissolution of the amorphous silica. The produced sodium silicate then reacts with the calcium hydroxide (portlandite) present in the hardened cement paste to form calcium silicate hydrate (abbreviated as C-S-H in the cement chemist notation). This silicification reaction of calcium hydroxide on its turn continuously releases again sodium hydroxide in solution, maintaining a high pH, and the cycle continues up to the total disappearance of portlandite or reactive silica in the exposed concrete. Without the catalysis of this reaction by sodium- or potassium-soluble hydroxides, the alkali–silica reaction would not proceed or would be limited to a very slow pozzolanic reaction. The alkali–silica reaction can be written like the soda lime reaction, by simply substituting carbon dioxide by silica dioxide in the reactions mentioned here above as follows:

reaction 1: SiO2 + NaOH → NaHSiO3 silica dissolution by NaOH:
high pH
reaction 2: NaHSiO3 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSiO3 + H2O + NaOH  C-S-H precipitation
and regeneration of NaOH
sum (1+2): SiO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSiO3 + H2O  global reaction:
Pozzolanic reaction catalysed by NaOH

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbonate</span> Salt of carbonic acid

A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid (H2CO3), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula CO2−3. The word carbonate may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate groupO=C(−O−)2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydroxide</span> Chemical compound

Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst. The hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical. The corresponding electrically neutral compound HO• is the hydroxyl radical. The corresponding covalently bound group –OH of atoms is the hydroxy group. Both the hydroxide ion and hydroxy group are nucleophiles and can act as catalysts in organic chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Base (chemistry)</span> Type of chemical substance

In chemistry, there are three definitions in common use of the word "base": Arrhenius bases, Brønsted bases, and Lewis bases. All definitions agree that bases are substances that react with acids, as originally proposed by G.-F. Rouelle in the mid-18th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcium oxide</span> Chemical compound of calcium

Calcium oxide, commonly known as quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline solid at room temperature. The broadly used term lime connotes calcium-containing inorganic compounds, in which carbonates, oxides, and hydroxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, and iron predominate. By contrast, quicklime specifically applies to the single compound calcium oxide. Calcium oxide that survives processing without reacting in building products, such as cement, is called free lime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula Na2CO3 and its various hydrates. All forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield alkaline solutions in water. Historically, it was extracted from the ashes of plants grown in sodium-rich soils, and because the ashes of these sodium-rich plants were noticeably different from ashes of wood, sodium carbonate became known as "soda ash". It is produced in large quantities from sodium chloride and limestone by the Solvay process, as well as by carbonating sodium hydroxide which is made using the Chlor-alkali process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rebreather</span> Portable apparatus to recycle breathing gas

A rebreather is a breathing apparatus that absorbs the carbon dioxide of a user's exhaled breath to permit the rebreathing (recycling) of the substantially unused oxygen content, and unused inert content when present, of each breath. Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the user. This differs from open-circuit breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. The purpose is to extend the breathing endurance of a limited gas supply, and, for covert military use by frogmen or observation of underwater life, eliminating the bubbles produced by an open circuit system and in turn not scaring wildlife being filmed. A rebreather is generally understood to be a portable unit carried by the user. The same technology on a vehicle or non-mobile installation is more likely to be referred to as a life-support system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcium hydroxide</span> Inorganic compound of formula Ca(OH)2

Calcium hydroxide (traditionally called slaked lime) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca(OH)2. It is a colorless crystal or white powder and is produced when quicklime (calcium oxide) is mixed with water. It has many names including hydrated lime, caustic lime, builders' lime, slaked lime, cal, and pickling lime. Calcium hydroxide is used in many applications, including food preparation, where it has been identified as E number E526. Limewater, also called milk of lime, is the common name for a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neutralization (chemistry)</span> Chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react quantitatively

In chemistry, neutralization or neutralisation is a chemical reaction in which acid and a base react with an equivalent quantity of each other. In a reaction in water, neutralization results in there being no excess of hydrogen or hydroxide ions present in the solution. The pH of the neutralized solution depends on the acid strength of the reactants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium hydroxide</span> Chemical compound

Lithium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula LiOH. It can exist as anhydrous or hydrated, and both forms are white hygroscopic solids. They are soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol. Both are available commercially. While classified as a strong base, lithium hydroxide is the weakest known alkali metal hydroxide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">IDA71</span> Russian military rebreather for underwater and high altitude use

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Carbonatation is a chemical reaction in which calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium carbonate:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lime (material)</span> Calcium oxides and/or hydroxides

Lime is an inorganic material composed primarily of calcium oxides and hydroxides, usually calcium oxide and/or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name for calcium oxide which occurs as a product of coal-seam fires and in altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The International Mineralogical Association recognizes lime as a mineral with the chemical formula of CaO. The word lime originates with its earliest use as building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering.

Sodium oxide is a chemical compound with the formula Na2O. It is used in ceramics and glasses. It is a white solid but the compound is rarely encountered. Instead "sodium oxide" is used to describe components of various materials such as glasses and fertilizers which contain oxides that include sodium and other elements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alkali–silica reaction</span> Chemical reaction damaging concrete

The alkali–silica reaction (ASR), also commonly known as concrete cancer, is a deleterious swelling reaction that occurs over time in concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and the reactive amorphous silica found in many common aggregates, given sufficient moisture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon dioxide scrubber</span> Device which absorbs carbon dioxide from circulated gas

A carbon dioxide scrubber is a piece of equipment that absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2). It is used to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such as rebreathers or in spacecraft, submersible craft or airtight chambers. Carbon dioxide scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere (CA) storage. They have also been researched for carbon capture and storage as a means of combating climate change.

The alkali–carbonate reaction is an alteration process first suspected in the 1950s in Canada for the degradation of concrete containing dolomite aggregates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Concrete degradation</span> Damage to concrete affecting its mechanical strength and its durability

Concrete degradation may have many different causes. Concrete is mostly damaged by the corrosion of reinforcement bars due to the carbonatation of hardened cement paste or chloride attack under wet conditions. Chemical damages are caused by the formation of expansive products produced by various chemical reactions, by aggressive chemical species present in groundwater and seawater, or by microorganisms. Other damaging processes can also involve calcium leaching by water infiltration and different physical phenomena initiating cracks formation and propagation. All these detrimental processes and damaging agents adversely affects the concrete mechanical strength and its durability.

The pozzolanic activity is a measure for the degree of reaction over time or the reaction rate between a pozzolan and Ca2+ or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the presence of water. The rate of the pozzolanic reaction is dependent on the intrinsic characteristics of the pozzolan such as the specific surface area, the chemical composition and the active phase content.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Residual sodium carbonate index</span>

The residual sodium carbonate (RSC) index of irrigation water or soil water is used to indicate the alkalinity hazard for soil. The RSC index is used to find the suitability of the water for irrigation in clay soils which have a high cation exchange capacity. When dissolved sodium in comparison with dissolved calcium and magnesium is high in water, clay soil swells or undergoes dispersion which drastically reduces its infiltration capacity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diving rebreather</span> Closed or semi-closed circuit scuba

A Diving rebreather is an underwater breathing apparatus that absorbs the carbon dioxide of a diver's exhaled breath to permit the rebreathing (recycling) of the substantially unused oxygen content, and unused inert content when present, of each breath. Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the diver. This differs from open-circuit breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. The purpose is to extend the breathing endurance of a limited gas supply, and, for covert military use by frogmen or observation of underwater life, to eliminate the bubbles produced by an open circuit system. A diving rebreather is generally understood to be a portable unit carried by the user, and is therefore a type of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba). A semi-closed rebreather carried by the diver may also be known as a gas extender. The same technology on a submersible or surface installation is more likely to be referred to as a life-support system.

References

  1. 1 2 Andrews, J. Jeff (1 September 2005). "Anesthesia Systems". In Paul G. Barash; Bruce F. Cullen; Robert K. Stoelting (eds.). Clinical Anesthesia (5th ed.). United States: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1584. ISBN   978-0-7817-5745-4. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  2. 1 2 Brubakk, Alf O.; Tom S. Neuman (2003). Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving, 5th Rev ed. United States: Saunders Ltd. p. 800. ISBN   978-0-7020-2571-6.
  3. ↑ Richardson, Drew; Menduno, Michael; Shreeves, Karl (eds). (1996). "Proceedings of Rebreather Forum 2.0". Diving Science and Technology Workshop. Diving Science and Technology: 286. Archived from the original on September 15, 2008. Retrieved 2009-03-18.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  4. ↑ Lillo RS, Ruby A, Gummin DD, Porter WR, Caldwell JM (March 1996). "Chemical safety of U.S. Navy Fleet soda lime". Undersea Hyperb Med. 23 (1): 43–53. PMID   8653065. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-18.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  5. ↑ Joseph Pelc (1923). Process of treating lime-containing materials. Application filed August 30, 1921. Serial No. 496,963. Patented Mar. 6, 1923. United States, 1,447,568 Patent Office.
  6. ↑ Samari, Mohammad; Ridha, Firas; Manovic, Vasilije; Macchi, Arturo; Anthony, E. J. (2019). "Direct capture of carbon dioxide from air via lime-based sorbents". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 25: 25–41. doi: 10.1007/s11027-019-9845-0 . ISSN   1381-2386.
  7. ↑ Ševčík, Radek; Mácová, Petra; Sotiriadis, Konstantinos; Pérez-Estébanez, Marta; Viani, Alberto; Šašek, Petr (2016). "Micro-Raman spectroscopy investigation of the carbonation reaction in a lime paste produced with a traditional technology". Journal of Raman Spectroscopy. 47 (12): 1452–1457. Bibcode:2016JRSp...47.1452S. doi:10.1002/jrs.4929. ISSN   0377-0486.
  8. ↑ Adriani, J.; Byrd, M. L. (1941). "A study of carbon dioxide absorption appliances for anesthesia: The canister". Anesthesiology. 2 (4): 450–455. doi: 10.1097/00000542-194107000-00009 .
  9. ↑ Freeman, Brian S.; Berger, Jeffrey S. (2014). Anesthesiology Core Review: Part One Basic Exam. Chapter 17: Absorption of Carbon Dioxide. McGraw-Hill Education. Retrieved 22 April 2020– via Access Medicine.
  10. ↑ Verbeck, G. (1958). "Carbonation of hydrated Portland cement". STP205-EB Cement and Concrete (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International: 17–36. doi:10.1520/STP39460S. ISBN   978-0-8031-5667-8.
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