St. Clair's defeat, also known as the Battle of the Wabash, the Battle of Wabash River or the Battle of a Thousand Slain,[3] was a battle fought on 4 November 1791 in the Northwest Territory of the United States. The U.S. Army faced the Western Confederacy of Native Americans, as part of the Northwest Indian War. It was "the most decisive defeat in the history of the American military"[4] and its largest defeat ever by Native Americans.[5]
The Native Americans were led by Little Turtle of the Miamis, Blue Jacket of the Shawnees, and Buckongahelas of the Delawares (Lenape). The war party numbered over 1,000 warriors, including many Potawatomis from eastern Michigan. The opposing force of about 1,000 Americans was led by General Arthur St. Clair. The forces of the American Indian confederacy attacked at dawn, taking St. Clair's men by surprise. Of the 1,000 officers and men that St. Clair led into battle, only 24 escaped unharmed. As a result, President George Washington forced St. Clair to resign his post, and Congress initiated its first investigation of the executive branch.[6]
Background
In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain recognized United States sovereignty of all the land east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes. The native tribes in the Old Northwest, however, were not parties to this treaty, and many of them, especially leaders such as Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, refused to recognize American claims to the area northwest of the Ohio River. The young United States government, deeply in debt following the Revolutionary War and lacking the authority to tax under the Articles of Confederation, planned to raise funds via the methodical sale of land in the Northwest Territory. This plan necessarily called for the removal of both Native American villages and squatters.[7] During the mid and late 1780s, a cycle of violence in Indian-American relations and the continued resistance of Native nations threatened to deter American settlement of the contested territory, so John Cleves Symmes and Jonathan Dayton petitioned President Washington and Secretary of WarHenry Knox to use military force to crush the Miami.[8]
A force of 1,453 men (320 regulars from the First American Regiment and 1,133 militia) under Brigadier General Josiah Harmar marched northwards from Fort Washington on 7 October 1790. The campaign ended in disaster for the United States. On 19–22 October, near Kekionga and Fort Miami (present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana), Harmar committed detachments that were ambushed by Native American forces defending their territory. On three separate occasions, Harmar failed to reinforce the detachments. Suffering more than 200 casualties, as well as a loss of a third of his packhorses, Harmar ordered a retreat back to Ft. Washington.[9] Estimates of total Native casualties, killed and wounded, range from 120 to 150.
Washington then ordered General Arthur St. Clair, who served as governor of the Northwest Territory and as a major general in the Army, to mount a more vigorous effort by the summer of 1791. Congress agreed to raise a second regiment of regular soldiers for six months,[10] but it later reduced soldiers' pay. The demoralized First Regiment was reduced to 299 soldiers, while the new Second Regiment recruited only half of its authorized soldiers.[10] St. Clair was forced to augment his Army with Kentucky militia and two regiments (five battalions) of six-month levies.[11]
In May 1791, Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson led a subsequent raid in August 1791, intended to create a distraction that would aid St. Clair's march north. In the Battle of Kenapacomaqua, Wilkinson killed 9 Wea and Miami, and captured 34 Miami as prisoners, including a daughter of Miami war chief Little Turtle.[12] Many of the confederation leaders were considering terms of peace to present to the United States, but when they received news of Wilkinson's raid, they readied for war.[13] Wilkinson's raid thus had the opposite effect, uniting the tribes against St. Clair instead of distracting them.[14]
The Native American forces did not have a formal command structure,[16] and the overall planning and leadership has been a source of debate. Both Blue Jacket and Little Turtle later claimed to have been in overall command of the united forces.[17]John Norton claimed that when the battle began, the Shawnee took the lead.[18] Little Turtle is often credited for the victory, but this may have been due to the influence of his son-in-law, William Wells, who later served with the United States as an Indian agent and interpreter.[19]
The different nations were grouped by similar language groups in a crescent-shaped formation at the start of the battle. Little Turtle of the Miamis, Blue Jacket of the Shawnee, with Buckongahelas and Captain Pipe[20] of the Lenape formed the center.[18]Egushawa was among the leaders of the Ottawa, Potawatomi, and Ojibwe units to the left. Tarhe and Simon Girty were among the leaders of the Wyandot, Mingo, and Cherokee units that formed the right horn of the crescent.[16]
The United States command structure was as follows:[11]
Washington was adamant for St. Clair to move north in the summer months, but various logistics and supply problems greatly slowed his preparations in Fort Washington (now Cincinnati, Ohio). The recruits were poorly trained and undisciplined, the food supplies were substandard, and the horses were low in number and poor quality. The expedition thus failed to set out until October 1791. Building supply posts as it advanced, the Army's objective was Kekionga, the capital of the Miami tribe.[citation needed]
The Army under St. Clair included 600 regulars, 800 six-month conscripts, and 600 militia at its peak, a total of around 2,000 men.[21] Desertion took its toll; when the force finally got underway, it had dwindled to around 1,486 total men and some 200–250 camp followers (wives, children, laundresses, and prostitutes). Going was slow, and discipline problems were severe; St. Clair, suffering from gout, had difficulty maintaining order, especially among the militia and the new levies. Indians constantly shadowed the force, and skirmishes occasionally erupted. By 2 November, through further desertion and illness, St. Clair's force had been whittled down to around 1,120, including the camp followers. While St. Clair's Army continued to lose soldiers, the Western Confederacy quickly added numbers. Buckongahelas led his 480 men to join the 700 Little Turtle and Blue Jacket warriors, bringing the war party to more than one thousand warriors, including many Potawatomis from eastern Michigan.[citation needed]
St. Clair had 52 officers and 868 enlisted and militia present for duty on 3 November. That day, the combined force camped on an elevated meadow, with the First Infantry and volunteers encamped on the opposite side of the Wabash River from the Kentucky militia camp, making it challenging to assist one another.[1] No defensive works were constructed, even though natives had been seen in the forest.[22] Butler sent a small detachment of soldiers under Captain Jacob Slough to capture some warriors who had harassed the camp. The detachment fired on a small party of Native Americans but soon realized they were outnumbered.[23] They returned to the camp and reported that they believed an attack was imminent, but Butler did not send this report to St. Clair or increase the camp's defenses.[1]
Battle
Map of St. Clair's encampment and retreat (north on bottom)St. Clair's defeat. a-Butler's Battalion, c-Clarke's Battalion, d-Patterson's Battalion, e-Faulkner's Rifle Company, h-Gaither's Battalion, j-Beddinger's Battalion, crosses indicate the "enemy", z-"troops retreating" (north on right)
On the evening of 3 November, St. Clair's force established a camp on a high hill near the present-day location of Fort Recovery, Ohio, near the headwaters of the Wabash River. A native force of around 1,000 warriors, led by Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, established a large crescent surrounding the camp.[25] They waited in the woods until dawn, when the men stacked their weapons and paraded to their morning meals.[22]Adjutant GeneralWinthrop Sargent had just reprimanded the militia for failing to conduct reconnaissance patrols when the natives struck, surprising the Americans and overrunning their ground.
The center, consisting of the Miami, Shawnee, and Lenape, first attacked the militia,[26] who fled across the Wabash and up the hill to the main camp without their weapons. The regulars immediately broke their musket stacks, formed battle lines, and fired a volley into the natives, forcing them back.[27] The left and right wings of the Native American formation flanked the regulars and closed in on the main camp, meeting on the far side.[28] Within 30 minutes, the 1,400 warriors had completely encircled the U.S. camp.[29] The U.S. muskets and artillery were poor quality and had little effect on the Native warriors behind their cover.[30] Meanwhile, St. Clair's artillery was stationed on a nearby bluff and was wheeling into position when the gun crews were killed by native marksmen, and the survivors were forced to spike their guns.
Women and children who accompanied the army sought refuge among the supply wagons.[31] Some militia tried to join them but were forced back into battle by the women. Darke ordered his battalion to fix bayonets and charge the central native position. Little Turtle's forces gave way and retreated to the woods, only to encircle Darke's battalion and destroy it.[32] The bayonet charge was tried numerous times with similar results, and the U.S. forces eventually collapsed in disorder. St. Clair had three horses shot out from under him as he tried unsuccessfully to rally his men.
Several survivors of St. Clair's Defeat wrote vivid accounts of their experiences during that terrible battle. The governing Boards of the Public Library of Fort Wayne and Allen County published a pamphlet, one of a historical series.[33] The three accounts were published in 1847, 1864 and 1851, respectively.
Retreat
After three hours of fighting, St. Clair called together the remaining officers and, faced with total annihilation, decided to attempt one last bayonet charge to get through the native line and escape. Supplies and wounded were left in the camp. As before, Little Turtle's army allowed the bayonets to pass through, but this time the men ran for Fort Jefferson.[34]Ebenezer Denny wrote that the fastest ran, leaving the slow and wounded behind.[35]
A Pennsylvania detachment under Major John Clark provided the rearguard for the retreat. When Clark was wounded, however, the detachment fled.[36] With no organized defense against the pursuing Native Americans, the retreat quickly turned into a rout. "It was, in fact, a flight," St. Clair described a few days later in a letter to Secretary of War Knox.[36] St. Clair later wrote that the route was littered with discarded firelocks, cartridge boxes, and uniforms, as the fleeing army discarded any items that slowed them down.[36] In desperation, one cook known as "Red-headed Nance" even abandoned her baby.[36] Another account tells a similar story, where a baby abandoned in the snow by a fleeing mother was found and adopted by pursuing Native Americans.[37]
Private Stephen Littell became lost in the woods and accidentally returned to the abandoned camp. He reported that the Native Americans were all gone, in pursuit of the fleeing army. The remaining wounded begged him to kill them before the Native Americans returned.[36] The American Indians continued their pursuit, killing those who fell to the rear of the retreat. After they had gone about four miles, they returned to loot the camp. Hiding beneath a tree, Littell reported that they ate the abandoned food, divided the spoils, and killed the wounded.[38]
The head of the retreat reached Fort Jefferson that evening, a distance of nearly 30 miles (48km) in one day. With inadequate space and no food, it was decided that those who could must continue to Fort Hamilton, another 45 miles (72km) away.[38] The wounded were left at Fort Jefferson with little or no food.[39] Those on horseback reached Fort Hamilton the next morning, followed by those who marched on foot.[38]
St. Clair sent a supply convoy and a hundred soldiers under Major David Ziegler from Fort Washington on 11 November.[40] They arrived at Fort Jefferson and found 116 survivors eating "horse flesh and green hides".[41]Charles Scott organized a relief party of Kentucky militia, but it disbanded at Fort Washington in late November with no action taken. Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson assumed command of the Second Regiment in January 1792 and led a supply convoy to Fort Jefferson. The detachment attempted to bury the dead and collect the missing cannons, but the task was beyond it, with "upwards of six hundred bodies" at the battle site and at least 78 bodies along the road.[42] The exact number of wounded is not known, but it has been reported that execution fires burned for several days after the battle.[34]
Casualties
The casualty rate was the highest percentage ever suffered by a United States Army unit and included St. Clair's second in command, Richard Butler. Of the 52 officers engaged, 39 were killed and 7 wounded; around 88% of all officers had become casualties. The American casualty rate among the soldiers was 97 percent, including 632 of 920 killed (69%) and 264 wounded. Nearly all of the 200 camp followers were slaughtered, for a total of 832 Americans killed. Due to its relatively small size at the time, approximately one-quarter of the entire U.S. Army had been destroyed in one day.[43] Only 24 of the 920 officers and men engaged came out of it unscathed. The survivors included Benjamin Van Cleve and his uncle Robert Benham; Van Cleve was one of the few who were unharmed. Native casualties were about 61, with at least 21 killed.[44]
So many people died on site that when 300 soldiers from the Legion of the United States returned to the site in late 1793, they identified the site by the unburied human remains. The detachment had to move bones to make space for their beds.[45][46] The Legion buried remains in a mass grave.[47] Sixty years after the battle, in September 1851, the town organized Bone Burying Day to inter the remains of bones discovered at that location.[48] Historian William Hogeland calls the Native American victory "the high-water mark in resistance to white expansion. No comparable Indian victory would follow."[49]
Aftermath
Native American response
The confederacy reveled in their triumph and war trophies, but most members of the force returned to their respective towns after the victory. The 1791 harvest had been insufficient in the region, and the warriors needed to hunt for winter food stores.[50] A grand council was held on the banks of the Ottawa River to determine whether to continue the war against the United States or negotiate peace from a strong position. Some believed the United States could not continue the war after losing so many soldiers.[51] The council delayed the final decision until a new grand council could be held the following year.[50] Both Little Turtle and Blue Jacket claimed to have been in overall command of the native forces at the victory, causing resentment between the two men and their followers.[17]
British response
The British, surprised and delighted at the success of the Natives they had been supporting and arming for years, stepped up their plans to create a pro-British Indian barrier state that would be closed to further settlement and encompass what was then known as the Northwest Territory.[52] The plans were developed in Canada, but in 1794 the government in London reversed course and decided it was necessary to gain American favor since a major war had broken out with France. London put the barrier state idea on hold and opened friendly negotiations with the Americans, leading to the Jay Treaty of 1794. One provision was that the British acceded to American demands to remove their forts from American territory in Michigan and Wisconsin. The British, however, maintained their forts in Ontario, from which they supplied munitions to the Natives living in the United States.[53]
United States response
News of the defeat reached the eastern states by late November. A French resident learned of the battle from Native Americans and shared the news at Vincennes. From there, a traveler headed east sent word to Virginia Governor Henry Lee, along with an alarm from Charles Scott.[54]
Major Ebenezer Denny carried St. Clair's official report to Philadelphia. Knox escorted Denny to President Washington on 20 December.[54] Washington was outraged when he received news of the defeat.[55] After cursing St. Clair, he told Tobias Lear, "General St. Clair shall have justice. I looked hastily through the dispatches, saw the whole disaster but not all the particulars."[56] St. Clair left Wilkinson in charge of Fort Washington[56] and arrived in Philadelphia in January 1792 to report on what had happened. Blaming Quartermaster General Samuel Hodgdon, as well as the War Department, St. Clair asked for a court-martial to gain exoneration and planned to resign his commission after winning it. Washington, however, denied him the court-martial and forced St. Clair's immediate resignation.
The House of Representatives began investigating the disaster. It was the first Congressional Special Committee investigation[1] as well as the first investigation of the executive branch. As part of the proceedings, the House committee in charge of the investigation sought certain documents from the War Department. Knox brought that matter to Washington's attention, and because of the significant issues of separation of powers involved, the president summoned a meeting of all of his department heads. It was one of the first meetings of all of the officials together and may be considered the beginning of the United States Cabinet.[57] Washington established, in principle, the position that the executive branch should refuse to divulge any papers or materials that the public good required it to keep secret and that at any rate, it was not to provide any originals. That is the earliest appearance of the doctrine of executive privilege,[58] which later became a major separation of powers issue.
The final committee report sided largely with St. Clair by finding that Knox, Hodgdon, and other War Department officials had done a poor job of raising, equipping, and supplying St. Clair's expedition.[59] However, Congress voted against a motion to consider the committee's findings and issued no final report. St. Clair expressed disappointment that his reputation was not officially cleared.[60]
Within weeks of learning of the disaster, Washington wrote, "We are involved in actual war!"[61] Following up on his 1783 "Sentiments on a Peace Establishment",[62] he urged Congress to raise an army capable of conducting a successful offense against the American Indian confederacy, which it did in March 1792 by establishing additional army regiments (the Legion of the United States), adding three-year enlistments, and increasing military pay.[47][55] That May, it also passed two Militia Acts. The first empowered the president to call out the militias of the several states. The second required free, able-bodied white male citizens of the various states between the ages of 18 and 45 to enroll in the militia of the state in which they resided. Washington would use the authority to call out the militia in 1794 to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania.[63]
General Richard Butler had many friends among the Seneca people, who mourned his death.[64] A Seneca delegation led by Cornplanter visited General Wayne in 1793,[65] and Seneca Chief Big Tree joined Wayne's Legion. In early 1794, when it appeared there would be an end to hostilities, Big Tree committed suicide.[64]
In December 1793, the Legion of the United States built Fort Recovery at the battlefield site and spent the following months reinforcing the structure and searching for the abandoned artillery from St. Clair's defeat. On 30 June to 1 July 1794, the Legion successfully defended the fort from a Native American attack. The following month, the Legion won a decisive victory in the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The next year, the United States and the Northwestern Confederacy negotiated the Treaty of Greenville, which used Fort Recovery as a reference point for the boundary between American and Native settlements.[66] The treaty is considered to be the conclusion to the Northwest Indian War.
Legacy
Monument to the fallen at St. Clair's Defeat in Fort Recovery, Ohio
The number of U.S. soldiers killed in St. Clair's defeat was more than three times the number the Sioux would kill 85 years later at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Despite being one of the worst disasters in U.S. Army history, the loss by St. Clair is largely forgotten.[5][59] The site of the battle is currently the town of Fort Recovery, Ohio, and includes a cemetery, memorial, and museum.[67]
One of the more significant effects of the Native American victory was the expansion in the United States of a standing, professional Army and militia reforms.[5] The Congressional investigation into the battle also led to the establishment of executive privilege.[58] The 1795 Treaty of Greenville used the site of St. Clair's defeat to draw a line opening most of modern Ohio to U.S. settlement. The Greenville line roughly corresponds to the contemporary Ohio-Indiana state line, slightly more than one mile (1.6km) west of the battleground site.
Popular culture
A story was published years after the defeat of St Clair about a skeleton of a Captain Roger Vanderberg and his diary that were supposedly found inside a tree in Miami County, Ohio. However, no one of that name was a casualty of the 1791 battle. The story originated in 1864 from a Scottish novel.[68]
A folk ballad, "St. Clair's Defeat" (or "Sinclair's Defeat"), was published in the 19th century[69] and was popular in the 1800s.[70] It may have been based on the earlier Crawford's Defeat by the Indians. Music historian Anne Grimes[71] cites Recollections of Persons and Places in the West by Henry M. Brackenridge, 1834, in which Brackenridge recalled hearing the song from its author, a blind poet named Dennis Loughey, at a racetrack in Pittsburgh around 1800.[72][73] It was collected as a folksong in Mary O. Eddy's 1939 book Ballads and Songs from Ohio.[74] It was recorded by Grimes on her 1957 album, Ohio State Ballads[75] and by Bob Gibson and Hamilton Camp on their 1960 album Gibson & Camp at the Gate of Horn. It was also recorded as "St. Claire's Defeat" by the folk revival group the Modern Folk Quartet in 1964[76] and by Apollo's Fire in 2004.[77]
↑ Griesmer, Daniel R. (December 2015). "1". The Evolution of Military Strategy and Ohio Indian Removal in the 1790s (Thesis). University of Akron. p.2. 10024044. Retrieved 9 July 2021– via ProQuest.
↑ Staff of the Public Library of Fort Wayne and Allen County (1954). St. Clair’s Defeat. Boards of the Public Library of Fort Wayne and Allen County. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
Arthur St. Clair was a Scottish-American soldier and politician. Born in Thurso, Scotland, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in Pennsylvania, where he held local office. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.
Little Turtle was a Sagamore (chief) of the Miami people, who became one of the most famous Native American military leaders. Historian Wiley Sword calls him "perhaps the most capable Indian leader then in the Northwest Territory," although he later signed several treaties ceding land, which caused him to lose his leader status during the battles which became a prelude to the War of 1812. In the 1790s, Mihšihkinaahkwa led a confederation of native warriors to several major victories against U.S. forces in the Northwest Indian Wars, sometimes called "Little Turtle's War", particularly St. Clair's defeat in 1791, wherein the confederation defeated General Arthur St. Clair, who lost 900 men in the most decisive loss by the U.S. Army against Native American forces.
The Miami are a Native American nation originally speaking one of the Algonquian languages. Among the peoples known as the Great Lakes tribes, they occupied territory that is now identified as north-central Indiana, southwest Michigan, and western Ohio. The Miami were historically made up of several prominent subgroups, including the Piankeshaw, Wea, Pepikokia, Kilatika, Mengakonkia, and Atchakangouen. In modern times, Miami is used more specifically to refer to the Atchakangouen. By 1846, most of the Miami had been forcefully displaced to Indian Territory. The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma are the federally recognized tribe of Miami Indians in the United States. The Miami Nation of Indiana, a nonprofit organization of self-identified descendants of Miamis who were exempted from removal, have unsuccessfully sought separate recognition.
The Northwest Territory, also known as the Old Northwest and formally known as the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio, was formed from unorganized western territory of the United States after the American Revolution. Established in 1787 by the Congress of the Confederation through the Northwest Ordinance, it was the nation's first post-colonial organized incorporated territory.
The Battle of Fallen Timbers was the final battle of the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between Native American tribes affiliated with the Northwestern Confederacy and their British allies, against the nascent United States for control of the Northwest Territory. The battle took place amid trees toppled by a tornado near the Maumee River in northwestern Ohio at the site of the present-day city of Maumee, Ohio.
Jean-François Hamtramck (1756–1803) was a Canadian who served as an officer in the US Army during the American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War. In the Revolution, he participated in the Invasion of Quebec, the Sullivan Expedition, and the Siege of Yorktown. In the history of United States expansion into the Northwest Territory, Hamtramck is connected to 18th century forts at modern Midwest cities such as Steubenville, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, and Detroit. The city of Hamtramck, Michigan is named for him.
The Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), also known by other names, was an armed conflict for control of the Northwest Territory fought between the United States and a united group of Native American nations known today as the Northwestern Confederacy. The United States Army considers it the first of the American Indian Wars.
William Darke was an American soldier who served with British forces before the Revolutionary War. He served with British regulars commanded by Major General Edward Braddock in his 1755 expedition to the French-controlled Ohio Valley, as part of the French and Indian War. The British forces were defeated and Braddock died.
Richard Butler was an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War who was later killed while he was fighting Native Americans in the United States in a battle that is known as St. Clair's Defeat.
William Wells, also known as Apekonit, was the son-in-law of Chief Little Turtle of the Miami. He fought for the Miami in the Northwest Indian War. During the course of that war, he became a United States Army officer, and also served in the War of 1812.
Fort Recovery was a United States Army fort ordered built by General "Mad" Anthony Wayne during what is now termed the Northwest Indian War. Constructed from late 1793 and completed in March 1794, the fort was built along the Wabash River, within two miles of what became the Ohio state border with Indiana. A detachment of Wayne's Legion of the United States held off an attack from combined Indian forces on June 30, 1794. The fort was used as a reference in drawing treaty lines for the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, and for later settlement. The fort was abandoned in 1796.
The Legion of the United States was a reorganization and extension of the United States Army from 1792 to 1796 under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne. It represented a political shift in the new United States, which had recently adopted the United States Constitution. The new Congressional and Executive branches authorized a standing army composed of professional soldiers rather than relying on state militias.
The Battle of Fort Recovery, 30 June – 1 July 1794, was a battle of the Northwest Indian War, fought at the present-day village of Fort Recovery, Ohio. A large force of warriors in the Western Confederacy attacked a fort held by United States soldiers deep in Ohio Country. The United States suffered heavy losses, but maintained control of the fort. The battle exposed a division in the Western Confederacy's military strategy at a time when they seemed to hold the advantage, and the United States pressed farther into the Northwest Territory.
The Northwestern Confederacy, or Northwestern Indian Confederacy, was a loose confederacy of Native Americans in the Great Lakes region of the United States created after the American Revolutionary War. Formally, the confederacy referred to itself as the United Indian Nations, at their Confederate Council. It was known infrequently as the Miami Confederacy since many contemporaneous federal officials overestimated the influence and numerical strength of the Miami tribes based on the size of their principal city, Kekionga.
The First American Regiment was the first peacetime regular army infantry unit authorized by the Confederation Congress after the American Revolutionary War. Organized in August 1784, it served primarily on the early American frontier west of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1815, following the end of the War of 1812, it was consolidated with several other regiments to form the 3rd Infantry Regiment.
The Battle of Kenapacomaqua, also called the Battle of Old Town, was a raid in 1791 by United States forces under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson on the Miami (Wea) town of Kenapacomaqua on the Eel River, approximately six miles upstream from present-day Logansport, Indiana.
The Harmar campaign was an attempt by the United States Army to subdue confederated Native Americans nations in the Northwest Territory that were seen as hostile in Autumn 1790. The campaign was led by General Josiah Harmar and is considered a significant campaign of the Northwest Indian War. The campaign ended with a series of battles on 19–22 October 1790 near the Fort Miami and Miami village of Kekionga. These were all overwhelming victories for the Native Americans and are sometimes collectively referred to as Harmar's Defeat.
Fort St. Clair was a fort built during the Northwest Indian War near the modern town of Eaton, Preble County, Ohio. The site of the fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.
The Blackberry Campaign is the name given to a May 1791 expedition led by Charles Scott against Native Americans of the lower Wabash Valley, primarily Wea, Kickapoo, Miami, and Potawatomi. The intent of the campaign was to demonstrate the vulnerability of Native American villages in the Northwest Territory, to take captives who could be used for peace negotiations, and to keep the forces of the Western Confederacy off balance in preparation for a larger campaign led by Arthur St. Clair. The name Blackberry Campaign was given because soldiers stopped to pick berries to supplement their food supplies.
Asa Hartshorne was a United States Army officer who died in 1794 during the Northwest Indian War. He was among the signers of the Treaty with the Six Nations and the Treaty with the Wyandot at Fort Harmar on January 9, 1789. Hartshorne became the namesake of a 1790 frontier skirmish near Maysville, Kentucky.
References
Allison, Harold (1986). The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians. Paducah: Turner Publishing Company. ISBN0-938021-07-9.
Calloway, Colin Gordon (2015). The Victory with No Name: the Native American Defeat of the First American Army. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-01993-8799-1.
Calloway, Colin Gordon (2018). The Indian World of George Washington. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0190652166. LCCN2017028686.
Eid, Leroy V. (1993). "American Indian Military Leadership: St. Clair's 1791 Defeat". Journal of Military History. 57 (1): 71–88. doi:10.2307/2944223. JSTOR2944223.
Gaff, Alan D. (2004). Bayonets in the Wilderness. Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-3585-9.
Guthman, William H. (1970). March to Massacre: A History of the First Seven Years of the United States Army. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-025297-1.
Locke, Steven P. (2023). War Along the Wabash: The Ohio Indian Confederacy's Destruction of the US Army, 1791. Philadelphia: Casemate Publishers. ISBN978-1-63624-268-2.
Odo, William O. (1993). "Destined for Defeat: an Analysis of the St. Clair Expedition of 1791". Northwest Ohio Quarterly. 65 (2): 68–93.
Schecter, Barnet (2010). George Washington's America. A Biography Through His Maps. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN978-0-8027-1748-1.
Sword, Wiley (1985). President Washington's Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790–1795. Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-1864-4.
Van Trees, Robert V. (1986). Banks of the Wabash. Fairborn, Ohio: Van Trees Associates. ISBN0-9616282-3-5.
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