Symbiosome

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A section of a root nodule cell showing symbiosomes enclosing bacteroids. Root-nodule01.jpg
A section of a root nodule cell showing symbiosomes enclosing bacteroids.

A symbiosome is a specialised compartment in a host cell that houses an endosymbiont in a symbiotic relationship. [1]

Contents

The term was first used in 1983 to describe the vacuole structure in the symbiosis between the animal host the Hydra , and the endosymbiont Chlorella . Symbiosomes are also seen in other cnidaria-dinoflagellate symbioses, including those found in coral-algal symbioses. In 1989 the concept was applied to the similar structure found in the nitrogen-fixing root nodules of certain plants. [1]

The symbiosome in the root nodules has been much more successfully researched due in part to the complexity of isolating the symbiosome membrane in animal hosts. [1] The symbiosome in a root nodule cell in a plant is an organelle-like structure that has formed in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The plant symbiosome is unique to those plants that produce root nodules. [2] The majority of such symbioses are made between legumes and diazotrophic Rhizobia bacteria. The rhizobia-legume symbioses are the most studied due to the importance in agriculture. [3] [4]

Each symbiosome in a root nodule cell encloses a single rhizobium that differentiates into a bacteroid. However, in some cases a symbiosome may house several bacteroids. [5] The symbiosome membrane, or peribacteroid membrane, surrounds the bacteroid membrane, separated by a symbiosome space. This unit provides an inter-kingdom, micro-environment for the production of nitrogen for the plant, [3] [6] and the receipt of malate for energy for the bacteroid. [7]

History

The concept of the symbiosome was first described in 1983, by Neckelmann and Muscatine, as seen in the symbiotic relationship between Chlorella ( a class of green algae, and Hydra a cnidarian animal host. [1] Until then it had been described as a vacuole. A few years later in 1989, Lauren Roth with Gary Stacey [8] as well as Robert B Mellor [9] applied this concept to the nitrogen-fixing unit seen in the plant root nodule, [1] previously called an infection vacuole. [10]

This has since engendered a great deal of research, one result of this has been the provision of a more detailed description of the symbiosome (peribacteroid) membrane, as well as comparisons with similar structures in Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal symbioses in plants. [11] In the animal models, the symbiosome has a more complex arrangement of membranes, such that it has proved difficult to isolate, purify and study. [1]

Structure and formation

A symbiosome is formed as a result of a complex and coordinated interaction between the symbiont host and the endosymbiont. [5] At the point of entry into a symbiont host cell, part of the cell's membrane envelops the endosymbiont and breaks off into the cytoplasm as a discrete unit, an organelle-like vacuole called the symbiosome. [5] [12] This is an endocytosis-like process that forms a symbiosome rather than an endosome. In plants this process is unique. [13]

The symbiosome membrane is separated from the endosymbiont membrane by a space known as the symbiosome space, which allows for the exchange of solutes between the symbionts. [14] [12] In the plant root nodule the symbiosome membrane is also called the peribacteroid membrane. [13]

In the plant

In the legume-rhizobia symbioses the symbiosome is the nitrogen-fixing unit in the plant, formed by an interaction of plant and bacterial signals, and their cooperation. The legumes are protein-rich, and have a high demand for nitrogen that is usually available from nitrates in the soil. When these are scarce the plant secretes flavonoids that attract free-living diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) rhizobia to their root hairs. In turn the bacteria release Nod factors that stimulate the infection process in the plant. [1] [13]

To enable infection the tip of the root hair curls over the rhizobia and by an inward growth produces an infection thread to carry the endosymbionts into the cortical cells. At the same time the cortical cells divide to produce the tough root nodules that will house and protect the bacteria. [15] [13] The bacterial production of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) is seen to be necessary for enabling infection. [13] The rhizobia infect the plant in large numbers, only seen to be actively dividing at the tip of the injection thread, where they are released into the cells inside symbiosomes. [15] [1] The symbiosome is formed as a result of an endocytosis-like process that produces an endosome. Typically endosomes target to lysosomes, but the symbiosome re-targets the host-cell proteins.

The changes in the plant needed to form the infection thread, the increased division of the cortical cells, the formation of the root nodule, and symbiosome, are brought about by dynamic changes in the actin cytoskeleton. [16] [13] Filamentous actin (F-actin) channels the elongation of the injection threads and short F-actin fragments are dotted around the symbiosome membrane. [16] The bacteria are released as injection drops into the host root nodule cells where the plasma membrane encloses them in the organelle-like structure of the symbiosome. In most plants a symbiosome encloses a single endosymbiont bacterium but some types may contain more than one. A negative feedback loop called the autoregulation of nodulation works to balance the need for nitrogen and thus the formation of nodules. [17] [18]

Differentiation

The outer host-cell derived symbiosome membrane encloses a space called the symbisome space or the peribacteroid space that surrounds the endosymbiont. In order for the symbiosome to be established as a nitrogen-fixing unit the enclosed bacterium has to be terminally differentiated into a morphologically changed bacteroid. The bacterium in the soil is free-living and motile. In the symbiosome it has to change its gene expression to adapt to a non-motile, non-reproductive form as the bacteroid. This change is noted by an increase in the size of the bacterium and its elongation. The bacterial membrane is also made permeable. [19] [1] [13] The process of differentiation is plant-driven using peptides known as nodule specific cysteine-rich peptides (NCR peptides).

NCRs are antimicrobial peptides that are similar to the defensin peptides used in mammals in response to invading pathogens. The NCRs are targeted to the symbiosome where they induce differentiation of the bacterium to the bacteroid. A major effect of NCR targeting is to limit the reproductive ability of the endosymbiont. These changes are controlled, since the bacterium is not killed as a result of exposure to the NCRs. Some of that control comes from the bacterium itself. [20] [21] [5] In order to survive the NCR activities, the bacteria need to produce a protein called BacA. In addition the lipopolysaccharide produced by the bacteria is modified by an unusual fatty acid that also gives protection against environmental stresses. These defensive measures help the differentiation process and ensures their survival as bacteroids. Some strains of rhizobia produce a peptidase that degrades the NCRs. [20] [21]

Nitrogen-fixing unit

The established bacteroid is able to fix nitrogen into a chemically usable form of ammonium for the plant. This is an energy-demanding process fuelled by the plant's carbohydrates. [13] Transport vesicles form in the symbiosome membrane allowing the passage of ammonium into the symbiosome space from the bacteroid, and the passage of plant nutrients to the bacteroid. [13] The rhizobia infect the plant in large numbers where they are released into the cells inside symbiosomes. They are protected by the tough structure of the root nodule. [15]

In the animal

The most well studied symbiosis involving an animal host is that between the cnidaria and the dinoflagellates, most commonly the single-celled zooxanthellae. The symbiosis of the Chlorella – Hydra first described the symbiosome. The coral Zoanthus robustus has been used as a model organism to study the symbiosis with its microsymbiont algal species of Symbiodinium , with a focus on the symbiosome and its membranes. Methods for isolating the symbiosome membranes have been looked for – the symbiont in the animal host has a multilayered membrane complex which has proved resistant to disruption making their isolation difficult. [1] [22]

The endosymbiont dinoflagellates are used for their ability to photosynthesise and provide energy, giving the host cnidarians such as corals, and anemones, plant properties. [23] Free-living dinoflagellates are ingested into the gastrodermal cells of the host, and their symbiosome membrane is derived from the host cell. [24] The process of symbiosome formation is often seen in the animal host to be that of phagocytosis, [24] and it is hypothesised that the symbiosome is a phagosome that has been subject to early arrest. [25]

Similar structures

A similar structure to the symbiosome is the parasitophorous vacuole formed within host cells infected by apicomplexan parasites. The vacuole is derived from the host cell plasma membrane. It is made safe from the host's endolysomal system by modifying-proteins released by the parasite. [26] [27] The parasitophorous vacuole membrane is greatly remodelled by the parasite. [28]

See also

Related Research Articles

Endosymbiont Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism

An endosymbiont or endobiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism most often, though not always, in a mutualistic relationship. (The term endosymbiosis is from the Greek: ἔνδον endon "within", σύν syn "together" and βίωσις biosis "living".) Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which live in the root nodules of legumes; single-cell algae inside reef-building corals, and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10–15% of insects.

Leghemoglobin

Leghemoglobin is an oxygen-carrying phytoglobin found in the nitrogen-fixing root nodules of leguminous plants. It is produced by these plants in response to the roots being colonized by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, termed rhizobia, as part of the symbiotic interaction between plant and bacterium: roots not colonized by Rhizobium do not synthesise leghemoglobin. Leghemoglobin has close chemical and structural similarities to hemoglobin, and, like hemoglobin, is red in colour. It was originally thought that the heme prosthetic group for plant leghemoglobin was provided by the bacterial symbiont within symbiotic root nodules. However, subsequent work shows that the plant host strongly expresses heme biosynthesis genes within nodules, and that activation of those genes correlates with leghemoglobin gene expression in developing nodules.

Rhizobia

Rhizobia are diazotrophic bacteria that fix nitrogen after becoming established inside the root nodules of legumes (Fabaceae). To express genes for nitrogen fixation, rhizobia require a plant host; they cannot independently fix nitrogen. In general, they are gram negative, motile, non-sporulating rods.

<i>Rhizobium</i> Genus of nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Rhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria that fix nitrogen. Rhizobium species form an endosymbiotic nitrogen-fixing association with roots of (primarily) legumes and other flowering plants.

Diazotrophs are bacteria and archaea that fix atmospheric nitrogen gas into a more usable form such as ammonia.

<i>Ensifer meliloti</i> Species of bacterium

Ensifer meliloti are an aerobic, Gram-negative, and diazotrophic species of bacteria. S. meliloti are motile and possess a cluster of peritrichous flagella. S. meliloti fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia for their legume symbionts, such as alfalfa. S. meliloti forms a symbiotic relationship with legumes from the genera Medicago, Melilotus and Trigonella, including the model legume Medicago truncatula. This symbiosis promotes the development of a plant organ, termed a root nodule. Because soil often contains a limited amount of nitrogen for plant use, the symbiotic relationship between S. meliloti and their legume hosts has agricultural applications. These techniques reduce the need for inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers.

Root nodule Plant part

Root nodules are found on the roots of plants, primarily legumes, that form a symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, capable plants form a symbiotic relationship with a host-specific strain of bacteria known as rhizobia. This process has evolved multiple times within the legumes, as well as in other species found within the Rosid clade. Legume crops include beans, peas, and soybeans.

Nod factor Signaling molecule

Nod factors, are signaling molecules produced by soil bacteria known as rhizobia in response to flavonoid exudation from plants under nitrogen limited conditions. Nod factors initiate the establishment of a symbiotic relationship between legumes and rhizobia by inducing nodulation. Nod factors produce the differentiation of plant tissue in root hairs into nodules where the bacteria reside and are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere for the plant in exchange for photosynthates and the appropriate environment for nitrogen fixation. One of the most important features provided by the plant in this symbiosis is the production of leghemoglobin, which maintains the oxygen concentration low and prevents the inhibition of nitrogenase activity.

Symbiotic bacteria are bacteria living in symbiosis with another organism or each other. For example, rhizobia living in root nodules of legumes provide nitrogen fixing activity for these plants. Symbiosis was first defined by Marko de Bary in 1869 in a work entitled "Die Erscheinung der Symbiose" in which he defined the term as "namely, the living together of parasite and host". The definition of symbiosis has evolved to encompass a sustained relationship between two or more different organisms "over a considerable fraction of the life of the host." In addition, this relationship is often beneficial for at least one of the organisms involved. There are three main types of symbiotic relationships: commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism. Commensalism is when one organism benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefits. Mutualism is when both organisms benefit. Lastly, parasitism is when one organism benefits while the other organism is harmed. Organisms can also be involved in multiple of these symbiotic relationships simultaneously.

Horizontal transmission is the transmission of organisms between biotic and/or abiotic members of an ecosystem that are not in a parent-progeny relationship. This concept has been generalized to include transmissions of infectious agents, symbionts, and cultural traits between humans.

<i>Geosiphon</i> Monotypic genus of photosynthetic, non-lichen fungi

Geosiphon is a genus of fungus in the family Geosiphonaceae. The genus is monotypic, containing the single species Geosiphon pyriformis, first described by Kützing in 1849 as Botrydium pyriforme. In 1915, Von Wettstein characterized Geosiphon pyriforme as a multinucleate alga containing endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, although he also noted the presence of chitin, a component of fungal cell walls. In 1933, Knapp was the first to suggest the fungal origin of the species and described it as a lichen with endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. It is the only member of the Glomeromycota known to not form a symbiosis with terrestrial plants in the form of arbuscular mycorrhiza.

<i>Bradyrhizobium</i> Genus of bacteria

Bradyrhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria, many of which fix nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation is an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen (N2); they must use nitrogen compounds such as nitrates.

Actinorhizal plants are a group of angiosperms characterized by their ability to form a symbiosis with the nitrogen fixing actinomycetota Frankia. This association leads to the formation of nitrogen-fixing root nodules.

Robert B. Mellor is a British scientist probably best known for his 1989 "unified vacuole theory", although also made significant contributions to environmental technology and to our understanding of the workings of the tech entrepreneurship ecosystem.

Trophic mutualism is a key type of ecological mutualism. Specifically, "trophic mutualism" refers to the transfer of energy and nutrients between two species. This is also sometimes known as resource-to-resource mutualism. Trophic mutualism often occurs between an autotroph and a heterotroph. Although there are many examples of trophic mutualisms, the heterotroph is generally a fungus or bacteria. This mutualism can be both obligate and opportunistic.

Bradyrhizobium japonicum is a species of legume-root nodulating, microsymbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The species is one of many Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria commonly referred to as rhizobia. Within that broad classification, which has three groups, taxonomy studies using DNA sequencing indicate that B. japonicum belongs within homology group II.

Rhizobium mongolense is a Gram negative root nodule bacteria, which nodulates and forms nitrogen-fixing symbioses with Medicago ruthenica. Its type strain is USDA 1844.

Mesorhizobium mediterraneum is a bacterium from the genus Mesorhizobium, which was isolated from root nodule of the Chickpea in Spain. The species Rhizobium mediterraneum was subsequently transferred to Mesorhizobium mediterraneum. This species, along with many other closely related taxa, have been found to promote production of chickpea and other crops worldwide by forming symbiotic relationships.

Ensifer medicae is a species of gram-negative, nitrogen-fixing, rod-shaped bacteria. They can be free-living or symbionts of leguminous plants in root nodules. E.medicae was first isolated from root nodules on plants in the genus Medicago. Some strains of E.medicae, like WSM419, are aerobic. They are chemoorganotrophic mesophiles that prefer temperatures around 28 °C. In addition to their primary genome, these organisms also have three known plasmids, sized 1,570,951 bp, 1,245,408 bp and 219,313 bp.

Martin Parniske is a German biologist with a specialisation in genetics, microbiology and biochemistry. He is university professor and head of the Institute of Genetics at the Faculty of Biology of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Parniske's scientific focus is on the molecular interaction between plants and symbiotic and pathogenic organisms including bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and insects.

References

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