Tasmanian temperate rainforests

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Tasmanian temperate rain forests
Reflections Gordon River.jpg
Lower Gordon River, Tasmania
Ecoregion AA0413.png
Ecoregion territory (in purple)
Ecology
Realm Australasian
Biome temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Borders
Geography
Area31,340 km2 (12,100 sq mi)
Country Australia
States Tasmania
Coordinates 42°54′S146°00′E / 42.9°S 146°E / -42.9; 146
Conservation
Conservation status Vulnerable
Protected16,649 km² (50%) [1]

The Tasmanian temperate rain forests are a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion in western Tasmania. The ecoregion is part of the Australasian realm, which includes Tasmania and Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and adjacent islands. [2]

Contents

Rainforest communities in Australia are classified as closed forests in which the canopy comprises 70–100% cover. [3] It can be divided into tropical, subtropical, monsoon and temperate rainforest. Tasmanian rainforest is classified and as cool temperate rainforest, and represents the most floristically complex and best developed form of this forest type in Australia. [4] In Tasmania, they can be found in the West, Savage River National Park, South West, North East and in patches on the East Coast. [3] On the mainland of Australia, cool temperate rainforest have a wide variety of woodland trees, but Tasmania only has a limited number of woodland and vascular plants such as mosses, liverworts, lichen and fungi. [5] Because of this, the definition of Tasmanian cool temperate rainforest was redefined in the 1980s to allow for communities that did not meet the canopy requirements and clearly separate cool temperate rainforest from mixed forest; The current definition states that cool temperate rainforests are those with trees usually greater than 8 m (26 ft) in height and capable of regenerating in the absence of large scale catastrophic events, such as fire. [3] These forests are climax vegetation and are dominated by angiosperms such as Nothofagus cunninghamii (myrtle beech), Atherosperma moschatum (sassafras), and Eucryphia lucida (leatherwood) as well as gymnosperms such as Athrotaxis selaginoides (King Billy Pine), Lagarostrobos franklinii (huon or macquarie pine) and Phyllocladus aspleniifolius (celery-top pine). [6] The limited number of woody species is thought to be due to repeated glaciation. [7] [8]

Tasmanian cool temperate rainforest can be divided into four types: Callidendrous rainforest, Thamnic rainforest, Implicate rainforest and Open Montane. These four major types differ in many of their characteristics such as structure, floristics, distribution, level of endemism and ecology. [3]

Community composition and descriptions

The Tasmanian cool temperate rainforest is composed of two alliances, the myrtle-beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) alliance and the pencil pine ( Athrotaxis cupressoides ) alliance. The former is made up of callidendrous, thamnic and implicate, whilst the latter is all open montane. [9]

Callidendrous rainforest

Callidendrous forest at streams edge at Growling Swallet Callidendrous forest at streams edge at Growling Swallet.JPG
Callidendrous forest at streams edge at Growling Swallet

This is the simplest rainforest community in Tasmania; it is typically represented by medium to tall forests dominated by Nothofagus cunninghamii and/or Atherosperma moschatum, often together with Leptospermum lanigerum (woolly tea-tree) or Acacia melanoxylon (Australian blackwood). [10] Typically, these forests are at least 40 m (130 ft) in height. Trees are usually well formed and widely spaced, and the understorey is open and often described as park-like. [3] The diversity of woody species is low, and they are usually sparse and inconspicuous throughout the understorey. However, at mid to low elevations, the understorey may contain a few small trees or shrubs such as Olearia argophylla (musktree), Pimelea drupacea (cherry riceflower), Pittosporum bicolor (cheesewood), Aristotelia peduncularis (heart berry) and Coprosma quadrifida . [11]

Fern diversity is high in many areas, and in these areas, epiphytes often flourish. [11] The dominant tree ferns are commonly Dicksonia antarctica (soft tree fern) and/or Polystichum poliferum (mother shield fern). Common epiphyte species include Rumohra adiantiformis (leathery shieldfern or iron fern), Asplenium gracillimum (mother spleenwort), Asplenium terrestre , Microsorum diversifolium (kangaroo fern)," Hymenophyllum flabellatum (shiny filmy-fern), Hymenophyllum australe (austral filmy-fern), Hymenophyllum cupressiforme , and Polyphlebium venosum (veined bristle-fern). [12] Histiopteris incisa (bat's wing fern) and Hypolepis rugosula (ruddy ground-fern) occur in disturbed sites such as along roads where there have been breaks in the canopy. [13]

New plantlets forming at the end of the fronds of the Mother spleenwort Mother Spleenwort frond tips.jpg
New plantlets forming at the end of the fronds of the Mother spleenwort

As elevation increases, the height of the forest decreases, [14] Nothofagus cunninghamii becomes multi-stemmed, develops crooked leaning stems and abundant epiphytic bryophytes, and lichens produce a patterned effect on the trunks. [15] The typical understorey becomes dominated by Tasmannia lanceolata (mountain pepper) and Telopea truncata (Tasmanian waratah), and the ground layer becomes host to Oxalis megellancia and Lagenophora stipitata (blue bottle-daisy). The pteridophyte diversity decreases and only small species such as Lycopodium fastigiatum (alpine club moss), Hymenophyllum peltatum, Grammitis billardierei (common finger-fern) and Blechnum penna-marina (Antarctic hard-fern) persist. [16]

Callidendrous rainforests occurs in the eastern half of the state and in northwestern and central Tasmania. [17]

Species found%CoverType/form
Atherosperma moschatum>75Dominant spp
Histiopteris insica1Understorey
Dicksonia antarctica5Understorey
Chiloglottis cornuta1scattered
Corybas diemenicus1scattered
Clematis aristata1scattered
Comprosma quadrifida1scattered
Hymenophyllum australia1scattered

Table 1 Lyrebird nature walk, Mt Feild, Tasmania: species composition and structure of a mixed Callidendrous and Thamnic rainforest community; Height ~20 m (66 ft), 90% of ground litter cover, 5% rock and 5% bare ground.

Thamnic rainforest

Thamnic rainforests are characterised by well-formed trees of medium height, well below 40 m (130 ft), and a distinct shrub layer. The canopy is typically dominated by a mixture of 2–5 species, including Nothofagus cunninghamii, Eucryphia lucida, Atherosperma moschatum, Lagarostrobos franklinii, Eucryphia milliganii (dwarf leatherwood), Phyllocladus aspleniifolius (celery-top pine), Athrotaxis selaginoides and, rarely, Nothofagus gunnii (tanglefoot-beech). [11]

The shrub layer is more prominent and has an increased diversity of woody trees. Common species are: Anopterus glandulosus (Tasmanian laurel), Anodopetalum biglandulosum , Acradenia frankliniae (whitey-wood or wirewood), Archeria hirtella , Archeria eriocarpa , Cenarrhenes nitida (native plum), Trochocarpa cunninghamii , Trochocarpa gunnii (sweet-scented trochocarpa), Orites diversifolia (silkwood), Prionotes cerinthoides (climbing heath), Richea pandanifolia (pandani or giant grass tree) and, at high elevations, Richea scoparia (honey richea). [11] The increase in understorey shrub is due to the larger number of gaps in the canopy, and the differing light requirements of competing species. [18] Fern diversity decreases, as a result, because of the decrease in light from the understorey. [19] Parablechnum wattsii (hard water fern) is the main ground fern; it prefers damp shaded areas and forms a very dense layer in some areas but can be absent in others. [20] Small epiphytes are widespread, these include Hymenophyllum rarum (a filmy fern) and Grammitis billardierei. Apteropteris applanata can occur in areas containing Athrotaxis. Other larger epiphytes are usually present, but they are rarely prominent. [21] At higher elevations, the general appearance resembles that of a callidenderous rainforest, but the floristic differences remain the same.

Thamnic rainforests occur mostly in western and southwestern Tasmania. [17]

Species % coverType/form
Blechnum nudum1ground cover
Anodopetalum bilandulosum>75Understorey
Anopteris glandulosa>50Understorey
Nothofagus cunninghamii>75Dominant
Atherosperma moschatum>75Dominant
Eucryphia lucida20Understorey
Phyllocladus asplenifolius5shrublayer

Table 2: The Creepy Crawly Nature Walk, Mt Field, Tasmania: Species composition in Thamnic rainforest community; Height ~35 m (115 ft), 95% of ground leaf cover, scattered rock and bare ground.

Implicate rainforest

Low in stature, broken uneven canopies, height reduced below 20m. Dominance is usually shared between several species: Nothofagus cunninghamii, Nothofagus gunnii, Eucryphia lucida, Atherosperma moschatum, Lagarostrobos franklinii, Eucryphia milliganii, Phyllocladus aspleniifolius, Athrotaxis selaginoides, Diselma archeri, Leptospermum scoparium, Leptospermum glaucescens, Leptospermum nitidum, Leptospermum lanigerum, Acacia mucronata and Melaleuca squarrosa . [5] Atherosperma moschatum is usually represented by small diameter depauperate plants. Understorey is tangled and barely distinguishable from the canopy layer. It can from a continuous layer from the ground to the canopy but some scattered emergents can occur. Species diversity is high for trees and shrubs in this community, but very low for ferns. [5] Anopterus glandulosus, Anodopetalum biglandulosum, [22] Cenarrhenes nitida, Telopea truncata, Agastachys odorata, Comprosma nitida, Archeria eriocarpa, Archeria serpyllifolia, Archeria hirtella, Olearia persoonioides, Trochocarpa cunninghamii, Trochocarpa gunnii, Richea pandanifolia, Richea scoparia, Dracophyllum milliganii and Prionotes cerinthoides are all typical shrubs or small trees that comprise these communities. The ferns are dominated by Parablechnum wattsii but small epiphytes do prevail: Hymenophyllum rarum, Hymenophyllum marginatum, Grammitis billardierei and Apteropteris applanata occurs in communities where Athrotaxis are present. [23] – occur mostly in western and southwestern Tasmania. [17]

Open montane rainforest

Low and dominated by Athrotaxis cupressoides or Athrotaxis selaginoides (less commonly). [24] Open canopy, widely spaced trees allow bright light to penetrate the lower levels of the forest. In some communities, the canopy can be dense and instead resemble a high-elevation callidendrous forest. Understorey may be dominated by either Poa (grasses) or Sphagnum (mosses) or commonly, low shrubs that are less than half the height of the forest. There is a high diversity of woody species but a low diversity of ferns. Multiple species from nearby treeless vegetation are present, but their classification as rainforest species is yet to be confirmed. [2] Understorey shrubs include: Nothofagus cunninghamii, Nothofagus gunnii, Diselma archeri, Podocarpus lawrencei, Richea pandanifolia, Richea scoparia, Richea sprengelioides, Orites acicularis, Orites revoluta, Microstobos niphophilus, Tasmannia lanceolata, Epacris serpyllifolia and Baeckea gunniana. Ferns are usually poorly developed with larger ground species absent or confined to rocks, Gleichenia alpina is the exception to this observation. [5] Small species such as Hymenophyllum peltatum and Apteropteris applanata can sometimes make an appearance. – occur on the Central Plateau but can extend as small outliners to the mountains further south. [17]

Biological factors

Geology and soils are important factors in Tasmanian ecology. [17] Callidendrous forests require good-quality sites where fertile soils occur over rocks such as basalt, dolerite and the more nutrient-rich granites. [25] Implicate forests are at the other extreme, and mostly grow in organic soils or mineral soils derived from nutrient-poor rock types such as quartzites and silicous conglomerates. [25] Thamnic forests tend to prefer an intermediate substrate. [14] With the exception of open montane forests, elevation seems to have little effect on the floristic differences between community types. [17] [26]

Conservation

In 1982, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated the northern portion of the ecoregion a World Heritage Site. [27]

Protected areas

Protected areas in the ecoregion include:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temperate rainforest</span> Forests in the temperate zone

Temperate rainforests are rainforests with coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rain.

<i>Lomatia tasmanica</i> Tasmanian shrub from the family Proteaceae

Lomatia tasmanica, commonly known as King's lomatia, is a shrub of the family Proteaceae native to Tasmania. Growing up to 8 metres (26 ft) tall, the plant has shiny green pinnate (lobed) leaves and bears red flowers in the summer, but yields neither fruit nor seeds. King's lomatia is unusual because all of the remaining plants are genetically identical clones. Because it has three sets of chromosomes and is therefore sterile, reproduction occurs only vegetatively: when a branch falls, that branch grows new roots, establishing a new plant that is genetically identical to its parent.

<i>Nothofagus cunninghamii</i> Species of tree

Nothofagus cunninghamii, commonly known as myrtle beech or Tasmanian myrtle, is the dominant species of cool temperate rainforests in Tasmania and Southern Victoria. It has low fire resistance and grows best in partial shade conditions.

<i>Nothofagus gunnii</i> Species of plant

Nothofagus gunnii, the tanglefoot or deciduous beech, is a deciduous shrub or small tree endemic to the highlands of Tasmania, Australia. It was described in 1847 by R.C Gunn N. gunnii is a small woody tree with a shrubby appearance known to grow up to 8 metres (26 ft). It lives only on mountains due to temperature limitations within the Tasmanian maritime climate and mainly grows at altitudes greater than 800 metres (2,600 ft) above sea level. It grows in alpine and sub-alpine regions in the central portions of the island. Though capable of reaching the size of a small tree, it is most common as a thick shrub or woody ground cover, hence its common name of "tanglefoot".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Styx Valley</span> Valley on the island of Tasmania, Australia

The Styx Valley is a valley located adjacent to the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area on the island of Tasmania, Australia. The Styx River is the main drainage system of the valley that lies about 100 kilometres (62 mi) northwest of Hobart, with the nearest town being Maydena.

<i>Phyllocladus aspleniifolius</i> Species of conifer

Phyllocladus aspleniifolius, commonly known as the celerytop pine, is an endemic gymnosperm of Tasmania, Australia. It is widespread and common in Tasmania, with the most abundance in the western highlands. Its ‘leaves’ appear similar to those of a celery plant, hence the common name.

<i>Athrotaxis cupressoides</i> Species of conifer

Athrotaxis cupressoides, commonly known as pencil pine, despite being a species of the family Cupressaceae and not a member of the pine family. Found either as an erect shrub or as a tree, this species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. Trees can live for upwards of 1000 years, sustaining a very slow growth rate of approximately 12 mm in diameter per year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quamby Bluff</span>

Quamby Bluff is a mountain in Northern Tasmania, Australia that is an outlying part of the Great Western Tiers mountain range.

<i>Atherosperma</i> Genus of trees

Atherosperma moschatum, commonly known as black sassafras, Australian sassafras, southern sassafras, native sassafras or Tasmanian sassafras, is a flowering plant in the family Atherospermataceae and the only species in the genus Atherosperma. It is a shrub to conical tree and is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It has densely hairy young branchlets, flowers and the lower surface of the leaves. Its leaves are lance-shaped to elliptic, sometimes with toothed edges, the flowers perfumed and white to cream, and the fruit is an achene.

<i>Anopterus glandulosus</i> Species of tree

Anopterus glandulosus, commonly known as native laurel or Tasmanian laurel, is a species of shrub or small tree in the family Escalloniaceae. Endemic to south and southwestern Tasmania, A. glandulosus is widespread in the moist understoreys of Tasmanian temperate rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests from sea level to mountainous regions below 1,200 metres (3,937 ft) above sea level.

Victoria, Australia contains approximately 32,000 hectares of temperate rainforest in various regions, which represents 0.14% of the State's total area. The areas with rainforest include: East Gippsland, Strzelecki Ranges, Wilsons Promontory, Central Highlands, and Otway Ranges. The rainforests vary between cool temperate, warm temperate, and mixed cool temperate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecology of Tasmania</span>

The biodiversity of Tasmania is of exceptional biological and paleoecological interest. A state of Australia, it is a large South Pacific archipelago of one large main island and a range of smaller islands. The terrain includes a variety of reefs, atolls, many small islands, and a variety of topographical and edaphic regions on the largest island, all of which promote the development of unusually concentrated biodiversity. During long periods geographically and genetically isolated, it is known for its unique flora and fauna. The region's climate is oceanic.

<i>Persoonia muelleri</i> Species of shrub

Persoonia muelleri, commonly known as Mueller’s geebung, is a shrub endemic to Tasmania. It forms a shrub in open areas of wet forests in the west and northeast of the state. It is occasionally confused with P. gunnii though it has larger flowers and longer, straighter leaves.

Tasmania is home to 'Australia’s largest cool temperate rainforests. Most of Tasmania’s rainforests occur in the North-West and throughout the North East highlands. Cool temperate rainforests typically have a heavy rainfall, cool climate, favor high altitudes and have a limited availability of light.

Tasmania can be broadly divided into two distinct regions, eastern and western, that exhibit major differences in climate, geology and vegetation. This divide, termed Tyler’s Corridor, runs from just south of the northwestern corner, and continues south, cutting roughly down the center of the island. The vegetation changes occur principally due to variations in soil types, which are a result of the geological composition, and the vast difference in climate across the state. Generally, the west has a higher mean rainfall but poor acidic soil while the east has a lower mean rainfall but slightly more fertile soil. This results in a larger proportion of rainforest, moorland and wet sclerophyll vegetation dominating in the west and predominantly dry sclerophyll in the east.

<i>Orites diversifolia</i> Species of flowering plant

Orites diversifolia (=diversifolius), commonly known as variable orites, is a member of the family Proteaceae and is endemic to Tasmania. The common name stems from the variable form of the leaves, which range from entire and linear to serrated and ovate. It is a common shrub in lowland rainforest, subalpine woodland and scrub.

<i>Trochocarpa gunnii</i> Species of plant

Trochocarpa gunnii is a species of flowering plant of the family Ericaceae and is endemic to Tasmania. It is a common, tall, rainforest understorey shrub with broadly oblong leaves and small, dense spikes of white, sometimes pink or red, glabrous flowers and purple to orange drupes.

<i>Hymenophyllum peltatum</i> Species of fern

Hymenophyllum peltatum, also known as alpine filmy-fern, is a species of filmy fern widely distributed across Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, South America. It is predominantly a rainforest species with delicate foliage arrangements. Members of the Hymenophyllaceae family display almost translucent fronds, bearing thickness of just a single cell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tasmanian Central Highland forests</span> Terrestrial ecoregion in Tasmania, Australia

The Tasmanian Central Highland forests is a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion in Australia. It covers Tasmania's Central Highlands region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rainforests and vine thickets</span>

Rainforests and vine thickets are a major vegetation group in Australia. It consists of temperate to tropical rainforests, monsoon forests, and vine thickets. Rainforests and vine thickets are generally found in small pockets across the eastern and northern portions of the continent, including western Tasmania, eastern New South Wales, eastern Queensland, the northern portion of the Northern Territory, and the Kimberley Region of northeastern Western Australia.

References

  1. ↑ Dinerstein, Eric [in German]; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; et al. (2017-04-05). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience . 67 (6): 534–545, Supplemental material 2 table S1b. doi: 10.1093/biosci/bix014 . ISSN   0006-3568. PMC   5451287 . PMID   28608869.
  2. 1 2 Busby, J. R., and M. J. Brown (1994). "Southern rainforests". Australian Vegetation: 131–155.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Reid, J. B., Hill, R. S., Brown, M. J. & Hovenden, M. J. (2005) Vegetation of Tasmania, Australian Biological Resources Study. ISBN   064644512X.
  4. ↑ Adam, Paul (1992). Australian rainforests. Oxford University Press.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Jarman, S. J., G. Kantvilas, and Michael James Brown (1991). Floristic and ecological studies in Tasmanian rainforest. Tasmanian Component of the National Rainforest Conservation Program.
  6. ↑ Tabor, John, et al. "Colonisation of clearfelled coupes by rainforest tree species from mature mixed forest edges, Tasmania, Australia." Forest Ecology and Management 240.1 (2007): 13–23.
  7. ↑ Worth, J. R. F., Jordan, G. J., Mckinnon, G. E. & Vaillancourt, R. E. (2009). "The major Australian cool temperate rainforest tree Nothofagus cunninghamii withstood Pleistocene glacial aridity within multiple regions: evidence from the chloroplast". New Phytologist. 182 (2): 519–532. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02761.x . PMID   19210718.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ "Tasmanian temperate rainforests". Digital Observatory for Protected Areas. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  9. ↑ S. J. Jarman; G. Kantvilas; M. J. Brown (2 September 1994). "Phytosociological studies in Tasmanian cool temperate rainforest". Phytocoenologia. 22 (3): 355–390. doi:10.1127/PHYTO/22/1994/355. ISSN   0340-269X. Wikidata   Q56336486.
  10. ↑ Neyland, M. G. (2001). "Vegetation of the Warra silvicultural systems trial" (PDF). Tasforests. 13 (2): 183–192.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Brown, M. J., et al. (1990) "Tasmanian rainforest communities: their description, environmental relationships and conservation status." Tasmanian Rainforest Research. Proceedings of a Seminar on Rainforest Research carried out under the Tasmanian Component of the National Rainforest Conservation Program, Tasmanian Government Printer, Hobart.
  12. ↑ Kantvilas, G. & Minchin, P. R. (1989). "An analysis of epiphytic lichen communities in Tasmanian cool temperate rainforests". Vegetatio. 84 (2): 99–112. doi:10.1007/BF00036510. S2CID   22984305.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Hill, R. S. & MacPhail, M. K. (1985). "A fossil flora form rafted plio-pleistocene mudstones at Regatta Point, Tasmania". Australian Journal of Botany. 33 (5): 497–517. doi:10.1071/BT9850497.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. 1 2 Read, J (1995). "The importance of comparative growth rates in determining the canopy composition of Tasmanian rainforest". Australian Journal of Botany. 43 (3): 243–271. doi:10.1071/BT9950243.
  15. ↑ Morely, S. E., Gibson, M. (2010). "Successional changes in epiphytic rainforest lichens: implications for the management of rainforest communities". The Lichenologist. 42 (3): 311–321. doi:10.1017/S0024282909990570. hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30035374 . S2CID   85922115.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ Hickey, J. E (1990). "Change in rainforest vegetation in Tasmania" (PDF). Tasforests 2: 143–149.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Read, Jennifer; Hill, Robert S. (1985). "Dynamics of Nothofagus-dominated rainforest on mainland Australia and lowland Tasmania". Vegetatio . 63 (2): 67–78. doi:10.1007/BF00032607. JSTOR   20037222. S2CID   40166079.
  18. ↑ Read, J. & Hill, R. S. (1988). "Comparative responses to temperature of the major canopy species of Tasmanian cool temperate rainforest and their ecological significance. I. Foliar frost resistance". Australian Journal of Botany. 36 (2): 131–143. doi:10.1071/BT9880131.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Brodribb, Tim J.; et al. (2005). "Leaf hydraulic capacity in ferns, conifers and angiosperms: impacts on photosynthetic maxima". New Phytologist. 165 (3): 839–846. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01259.x . PMID   15720695.
  20. ↑ Coates, F. & Kirkpatrick, J. B. (1992). "Environmental relations and ecological responses of some higher plant species on rock cliffs in northern Tasmania". Australian Journal of Ecology. 17 (4): 441–449. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1992.tb00827.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ Kantvilas, Gintaras (1988). "Tasmanian rainforest lichen communities: a preliminary classification". Phytocoenologia. 16 (3): 391–428. doi:10.1127/phyto/16/1988/391.
  22. ↑ Barker, P. (1990). Tasmanian Rainforest Research: Stand Architecture of Anodopetalum biglandulosum. Hobart, Tasmania: The Tasmanian component of the National Rainforest Program. pp. 27–34.
  23. ↑ Jarman, S. Jean, and Bruce Alexander Fuhrer (1995). Mosses and liverworts of rainforest in Tasmania and south-eastern Australia. CSIRO PUBLISHING.
  24. ↑ Cullen, P. J., and J. B. Kirkpatrick (1988). "The ecology of Athrotaxis D. Don (Taxodiaceae). II. The distributions and ecological differentiation of A. cupressoides and A. selaginoides". Australian Journal of Botany. 36 (5): 561–573. doi:10.1071/BT9880561.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. 1 2 Read, Jennifer (2001). "Soil and rainforest composition in Tasmania: correlations of soil characteristics with canopy composition and growth rates in Nothofagus cunninghamii associations". Australian Journal of Botany. 49 (2): 121–135. doi:10.1071/BT00016.
  26. ↑ Reid, J. B., Hill, R. S., Brown, M. J. & Hovenden, M. J. (2005) Vegetation of Tasmania, Australian Biological Resources Study
  27. ↑ "Tasmanian Wilderness – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
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