Temperament and Character Inventory

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The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) is an inventory for personality traits devised by Cloninger et al. [1] It is closely related to and an outgrowth of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ), and it has also been related to the dimensions of personality in Zuckerman's alternative five and Eysenck's models [2] and those of the five factor model. [3]

Contents

TCI operates with seven dimensions of personality traits: four so-called temperaments [4]

and three so-called characters

Each of these traits has a varying number of subscales. The dimensions are determined from a 240-item questionnaire.

The TCI is based on a psychobiological model that attempts to explain the underlying causes of individual differences in personality traits. [5]

Versions

Originally developed in English, TCI has been translated to other languages, e.g., Swedish, [6] Japanese, Dutch, German, Polish, Korean, [7] Finnish, Chinese and French. There is also a revised version TCI-R. Whereas the original TCI had statements for which the subject should indicate true or false, the TCI-R has a five-point rating for each statement. The two versions hold 189 of the 240 statements in common. The revised version has been translated into Spanish, [8] French, [9] Czech, [10] and Italian. [11]

The number of subscales on the different top level traits differ between TCI and TCI-R. The subscales of the TCI-R are:

Neurobiological foundation

TCI has been used for investigating the neurobiological foundation for personality, together with other research modalities, e.g., with molecular neuroimaging, [12] structural neuroimaging [13] and genetics.

TemperamentNeurotransmitter system
Novelty seeking Low dopaminergic activity
Harm avoidance High serotonergic activity
Reward dependence Low noradrenergic activity

Cloninger suggested that the three original temperaments from TPQ, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence, was correlated with low basal dopaminergic activity, high serotonergic activity, and low basal noradrenergic activity, respectively. [14]

Many studies have used TCI for examining whether genetic variants in individual genes have an association with personality traits. Studies suggest that novelty seeking is associated with dopaminergic pathways. [15] Dopamine transporter DAT1 and dopamine receptor DRD4 are associated with novelty seeking.[ citation needed ] Parkinson's patients, who are intrinsically low in dopamine, are found to have low novelty seeking scores.[ citation needed ] Gene variants that have been investigated are, e.g., 5-HTTLPR in the serotonin transporter gene and gene variants in XBP1 . [16]

Relationship to other personality models

Cloninger argued that the Five Factor model does not assess domains of personality relevant to personality disorders such as autonomy, moral values, and aspects of maturity and self-actualization considered in humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Cloninger argued that these domains are captured by self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence respectively. [5] He also argued that personality factors defined as independent by factor analysis, such as neuroticism and introversion, may actually share underlying etiological factors.

Research has found that all of the TCI dimensions are each related substantially to at least one of the dimensions in the Five Factor Model, [3] Eysenck's model, Zuckerman's alternative five:

Health and well-being

Cloninger has argued that "psychological well-being" depends on the development of facets of the three character dimensions, such as autonomy and life purpose from self-directedness, positive relations with others from cooperativeness, and personal growth and self-actualization from self-transcendence. He has also argued that the temperament dimensions are associated with subjective well-being and to some extent with physical health. [17] A study examining relationships between character dimensions and aspects of health and happiness found that self-directedness was strongly associated with happiness, satisfaction with life, general health, and perceived social support. Cooperativeness was associated most strongly with perceived social support and only weakly with the other well-being measures. Self-transcendence was associated with positive emotions when taking the other character traits into account, but was largely unrelated to negative emotions or the other well-being measures. [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

Personality is any person's collection of interrelated behavioral, cognitive and emotional patterns that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life. These interrelated patterns are relatively stable, but can change over long time periods.

In psychology, trait theory is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals, are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory dispositions.

In psychology, schizotypy is a theoretical concept that posits a continuum of personality characteristics and experiences, ranging from normal dissociative, imaginative states to extreme states of mind related to psychosis, especially schizophrenia. The continuum of personality proposed in schizotypy is in contrast to a categorical view of psychosis, wherein psychosis is considered a particular state of mind, which the person either has or does not have.

In psychology, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a questionnaire to assess the personality traits of a person. It was devised by psychologists Hans Jürgen Eysenck and Sybil B. G. Eysenck.

Agreeableness is a personality trait that manifests as behavior that is perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm, frank, and considerate. In contemporary personality psychology, agreeableness is one of the five major dimensions of personality structure, reflecting individual differences in cooperation and social harmony.

Harm avoidance (HA) is a personality trait characterized by excessive worrying; pessimism; shyness; and being fearful, doubtful, and easily fatigued. In MRI studies HA was correlated with reduced grey matter volume in the orbito-frontal, occipital and parietal regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C. Robert Cloninger</span>

Claude Robert Cloninger is an American psychiatrist and geneticist noted for his research on the biological, psychological, social, and spiritual foundation of both mental health and mental illness. He previously held the Wallace Renard Professorship of Psychiatry, and served as professor of psychology and genetics, as well as director of the Sansone Family Center for Well-Being at Washington University in St. Louis. Cloninger is a member of the evolutionary, neuroscience, and statistical genetics programs of the Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences at Washington University, and is recognized as an expert clinician in the treatment of general psychopathology, substance dependence, and personality disorders. Dr. Cloninger is currently professor emeritus.

Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) is a personality test. It was devised by C. Robert Cloninger. A newer version of the questionnaire is called Temperament and Character Inventory.

In psychology, novelty seeking (NS) is a personality trait associated with exploratory activity in response to novel stimulation, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to reward cues, quick loss of temper, and avoidance of frustration. That is, Novelty seeking refers to the tendency to pursue new experiences with intense emotional sensations. It is a multifaceted behavioral construct that includes thrill seeking, novelty preference, risk taking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence. The novelty-seeking trait is considered a heritable tendency of individuals to take risks for the purpose of achieving stimulation and seeking new environments and situations that make their experiences more intense. This trait has been associated with the level of motive and excitement in response to novelty. Persons with high levels of novelty seeking have been described as more impulsive and disorderly than low novelty seekers and have a higher propensity to get involved in risky activities, such as starting to misuse drugs, engaging in risky sexual activities, and suffering accidental injuries. It is measured in the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire as well as the later version Temperament and Character Inventory and is considered one of the temperament dimensions of personality. Like the other temperament dimensions, it has been found to be highly heritable. Another related term, Variety seeking or variety-seeking buying behavior describes a consumer's desire to search for alternative products even if she or he is satisfied with a current product. For example, someone may drink tea with lunch one day but choose orange juice the next day specifically to get something different. High NS has been suggested to be related to low dopaminergic activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reward dependence</span>

Reward dependence (RD) is characterized as a tendency to respond markedly to signals of reward, particularly to verbal signals of social approval, social support, and sentiment. When reward dependence levels deviate from normal we see the rise of several personality and addictive disorders.

Sensation seeking is a personality trait defined by the search for experiences and feelings, that are "varied, novel, rich and intense", and by the readiness to "take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences." Risk is not an essential part of the trait, as many activities associated with it are not risky. However, risk may be ignored, tolerated, or minimized and may even be considered to add to the excitement of the activity. The concept was developed by Marvin Zuckerman of the University of Delaware. In order to assess this trait he created a personality test called the Sensation Seeking Scale. This test assesses individual differences in terms of sensory stimulation preferences. So there are people who prefer a strong stimulation and display a behavior that manifests a greater desire for sensations and there are those who prefer a low sensory stimulation. The scale is a questionnaire designed to measure how much stimulation a person requires and the extent to which they enjoy the excitement. Zuckerman hypothesized that people who are high sensation seekers require a lot of stimulation to reach their Optimal Level of Arousal. When the stimulation or sensory input is not met, the person finds the experience unpleasant.

In psychology, persistence (PS) is a personality trait. It is measured with the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and is considered one of the four temperament traits. Persistence refers to perseverance in spite of fatigue or frustration.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) proposes three brain-behavioral systems that underlie individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation. While not originally defined as a theory of personality, the RST has been used to study and predict anxiety, impulsivity, and extraversion. The theory evolved from Gray's biopsychological theory of personality to incorporate findings from a number of areas in psychology and neuroscience, culminating in a major revision in 2000. The revised theory distinguishes between fear and anxiety and proposes functionally related subsystems. Measures of RST have not been widely adapted to reflect the revised theory due to disagreement over related versus independent subsystems. Despite this controversy, RST informed the study of anxiety disorders in clinical settings and continues to be used today to study and predict work performance. RST, built upon Gray's behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) understanding, also may help to suggest predispositions to and predict alcohol and drug abuse. RST, a continuously evolving paradigm, is the subject of multiple areas of contemporary psychological enquiry.

Self-transcendence is a personality trait that involves the expansion or evaporation of personal boundaries. This may potentially include spiritual experiences such as considering oneself an integral part of the universe. Several psychologists, including Viktor Frankl, Abraham Maslow, Pamela G. Reed, C. Robert Cloninger, Lars Tornstam, and Scott Barry Kaufman have made contributions to the theory of self-transcendence.

Self-directedness is a personality trait held by someone with characteristic self-determination, that is, the ability to regulate and adapt behavior to the demands of a situation in order to achieve personally chosen goals and values.

Cooperativeness is a personality trait that concerns how much a person is generally agreeable in their relations with other people as opposed to aggressively self-centered and hostile.

The alternative five model of personality is based on the claim that the structure of human personality traits is best explained by five broad factors called impulsive sensation seeking (ImpSS), neuroticism–anxiety (N-Anx), aggression–hostility (Agg-Host), sociability (Sy), and activity (Act). The model was developed by Marvin Zuckerman and colleagues as a rival to the well-known five factor model of personality traits and is based on the assumption that "basic" personality traits are those with a strong biological-evolutionary basis. One of the salient differences between these two models is that the alternative five model lacks any equivalent to the dimension called openness to experience in the five factor model.

The biological basis of personality it is the collection of brain systems and mechanisms that underlie human personality. Human neurobiology, especially as it relates to complex traits and behaviors, is not well understood, but research into the neuroanatomical and functional underpinnings of personality are an active field of research. Animal models of behavior, molecular biology, and brain imaging techniques have provided some insight into human personality, especially trait theories.

Activity-specific approach in temperament research is the theory related to a structure of temperament, i.e. how temperament traits can be classified and organized. This approach suggests:

Personality traits are patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that reflect the tendency to respond in certain ways under certain circumstances.

References

  1. ↑ C. Robert Cloninger (1994). The temperament and character inventory (TCI): A guide to its development and use. St. Louis, MO: Center for Psychobiology of Personality, Washington University. ISBN   978-0-9642917-1-3.
  2. ↑ Marvin Zuckerman and C. Robert Cloninger (August 1996). "Relationships between Cloninger's, Zuckerman's, and Eysenck's dimensions of personality". Personality and Individual Differences . 21 (2): 283–285. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00042-6. PMC   4486314 . PMID   26146428.
  3. 1 2 3 4 De Fruyt, F.; Van De Wiele, L.; Van Heeringen, C. (2000). "Cloninger's Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character and the Five-Factor Model of Personality". Personality and Individual Differences. 29 (3): 441–452. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00204-4.
  4. ↑ "Temperament & Character Inventory". Center for Well-being, Washington University in St. Louis. Archived from the original on 2009-07-17. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
  5. 1 2 Cloninger, C.R.; Svrakic, DM; Przybeck, TR (December 1993). "A psychobiological model of temperament and character". Archives of General Psychiatry. 50 (12): 975–90. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820240059008. PMID   8250684.
  6. ↑ Brändström, Sven; Schlette, Paul; Przybeck, Thomas R; Lundberg, Mattias; Forsgren, Thomas; Sigvardsson, Sören; Nylander, Per-Olof; Nilsson, Lars-Göran; Cloninger, Robert C (May–June 1998). "Swedish normative data on personality using the Temperament and Character Inventory". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 39 (3): 122–128. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(98)90070-0. PMID   9606577.
  7. ↑ Lyoo, In Kyoon; Han, Chang Hwan; Lee, Soo Jin; Yune, Sook Kyeong; Ha, Ji Hyun; Chung, Sun Joo; Choi, Hyunsoo; Seo, Cheon Seok; Hong, Kang-E.M (March–April 2004). "The reliability and validity of the junior temperament and character inventory". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 45 (2): 121–128. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2003.12.002. PMID   14999663.
  8. ↑ Gutiérrez-Zotes, JA; Bayón, C; Montserrat, C; Valero, J; Labad, A; Cloninger, CR; Fernández-Aranda, F (January–February 2004). "[Temperament and Character Inventory Revised (TCI-R). Standardization and normative data in a general population sample]". Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría. 32 (1): 8–15. PMID   14963776.
  9. ↑ A. Pelissolo; L. Mallet; J.-M. Baleyte; G. Michel; C. R. Cloninger; J.-F. Allilaire; R. Jouvent (2005). "The Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised (TCI-R): psychometric characteristics of the French version". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica . 112 (2): 126–133. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00551.x. PMID   15992394. S2CID   25445104.
  10. ↑ Preiss, M; Kucharová, J; Novák, T; Stepánková, H (June 2007). "The temperament and character inventory-revised (TCI-R): a psychometric characteristics of the Czech version". Psychiatria Danubina . 19 (1–2): 27–34. PMID   17603413.
  11. ↑ Fossati, Andrea; Cloninger, C. Robert; Villa, Daniele; Borroni, Serena; Grazioli, Federica; Giarolli, Laura; Battaglia, Marco; Maffei, Cesare (July–August 2007). "Reliability and validity of the Italian version of the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised in an outpatient sample". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 48 (4): 380–387. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.02.003. PMID   17560961.
  12. ↑ Borg, J.; Andrée, B; Soderstrom, H; Farde, L (November 2003). "The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences". American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (11): 1965–1969. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.11.1965. PMID   14594742. S2CID   5911066.
  13. ↑ Yamasue, H.; Abe, O.; Suga, M.; Yamada, H.; Inoue, H.; Tochigi, M.; Rogers, M.; Aoki, S.; Kato, N. (January 2008). "Gender-common and -specific neuroanatomical basis of human anxiety-related personality traits". Cerebral Cortex . 18 (1): 46–52. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm030 . hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30047633 . PMID   17412719.
  14. ↑ C. R. Cloninger (Autumn 1986). "A unified biosocial theory of personality and its role in the development of anxiety states". Psychiatric Developments . 4 (3): 167–226. PMID   3809156.
  15. ↑ Bódi, Nikoletta; Kéri, Szabolcs; Nagy, Helga; Moustafa, Ahmed; Myers, Catherine E (September 2009). "Reward-learning and the novelty-seeking personality: a between- and within-subjects study of the effects of dopamine agonists on young Parkinson's patients". Brain. 132 (9): 2385–2395. doi:10.1093/brain/awp094. PMC   2766178 . PMID   19416950.
  16. ↑ Kusumi, Ichiro; Masui, Takuya; Kakiuchi, Chihiro; Suzuki, Katsuji; Akimoto, Tatsuyuki; Hashimoto, Ryota; Kunugi, Hiroshi; Kato, Tadafumi; Koyama, Tsukasa (December 2005). "Relationship between XBP1 genotype and personality traits assessed by TCI and NEO-FFI". Neuroscience Letters . 391 (1–2): 7–10. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.08.023. hdl: 2115/8420 . PMID   16154272. S2CID   505223.
  17. 1 2 Cloninger, CR; Zohar, AH (2011). "Personality and the perception of health and happiness". Journal of Affective Disorders. 128 (1–2): 24–32. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.012. PMID   20580435.
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