WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2

Last updated

The WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2 or the Joint WHO-China Study was a collaborative study between the World Health Organization and the Government of China on the origins of COVID-19. [1] The study was commissioned by the Director-General of the World Health Organization following a request by the 2020 World Health Assembly in which 122 WHO members proposed a motion, which included a call for a "comprehensive, independent and impartial" study into the COVID-19 pandemic" [2] [3] The WHO disbanded the team and proposed a new panel called Scientific Advisory Group for Origins of Novel Pathogens. [4] [5]

Contents

Background

The World Health Organization has declared that finding where SARS-CoV-2 came from is a priority and that it is "essential for understanding how the pandemic started". [6] In May 2020, the World Health Assembly, which governs the World Health Organization (WHO), passed a motion calling for a "comprehensive, independent and impartial" study into the COVID-19 pandemic. A record 137 countries, including China, co-sponsored the motion, giving overwhelming international endorsement to the study. [7] In mid 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) began negotiations with the government of China on conducting an official study into the origins of COVID-19.

In November 2020, the WHO published a two-phase study plan. The purpose of the first phase was to better understand how the virus "might have started circulating in Wuhan", and a second phase involves longer-term studies based on the findings of the first phase. [8] [9] WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom said "We need to know the origin of this virus because it can help us to prevent future outbreaks," adding, "There is nothing to hide. We want to know the origin, and that's it." He also urged countries not to politicise the origin tracing process, saying that would only create barriers to learning the truth. [10]

Phase 1

For the first phase, the WHO formed a team of ten researchers with expertise in virology, public health and animals to conduct a thorough study. [11] One of the team's tasks was to retrospectively ascertain what wildlife was being sold in local wet markets in Wuhan. [12] The WHO's phase one team arrived and quarantined in Wuhan, Hubei, China in January 2021. [13] [14]

Members of the team included Thea Fisher, John Watson, Marion Koopmans, Dominic Dwyer, Vladimir Dedkov, Hung Nguyen-Viet, Fabian Leendertz, Peter Daszak, Farag El Moubasher, and Ken Maeda. The team also included five WHO experts led by Peter Ben Embarek, two Food and Agriculture Organization representatives, and two representatives from the World Organisation for Animal Health. [8]

The inclusion of Peter Daszak in the team stirred controversy. Daszak is the head of EcoHealth Alliance, a nonprofit that studies spillover events, and has been a longtime collaborator of over 15 years with Shi Zhengli, Wuhan Institute of Virology's director of the Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases. [15] [16] While Daszak is highly knowledgeable about Chinese laboratories and the emergence of diseases in the area, his close connection with the WIV was seen by some as a conflict of interest in the WHO's study. [15] [17] When a BBC News journalist asked about his relationship with the WIV, Daszak said, "We file our papers, it's all there for everyone to see." [18]

Findings

In February 2021, after conducting part of their study, the WHO stated that the likely origin of COVID-19 was a zoonotic event from a virus circulating in bats, likely through another animal carrier, and that the time of transmission to humans was likely towards the end of 2019. [19]

The Chinese and the international experts who jointly carried out the WHO-convened study consider it "extremely unlikely" that COVID-19 leaked from a lab. [19] [20] [21] [22] No evidence of a lab leak from the Wuhan Institute of Virology was found by the WHO team, with team leader Peter Ben Embarek stating that it was "very unlikely" due to the safety protocols in place. [19] During a 60 Minutes interview with Lesley Stahl, Peter Daszak, a member of the WHO team, described the investigation process to be a series of questions and answers between the WHO team and the Wuhan lab staff. Stahl made the comment that the team was "just taking their word for it", to which Daszak replied, "Well, what else can we do? There's a limit to what you can do and we went right up to that limit. We asked them tough questions. They weren't vetted in advance. And the answers they gave, we found to be believable—correct and convincing." [23]

The investigation also stated that transfer from animals to humans was unlikely to have occurred at the Huanan Seafood Market, since infections without a known epidemiological link were confirmed before the outbreak around the market. [19] In an announcement that surprised some foreign experts, the joint investigation concluded that early transmission via the cold chain of frozen products was "possible". [19]

In March 2021, the WHO published a written report with the results of the study. [8] The joint team stated that there are four scenarios for introduction: [24]

The report mentions that direct zoonotic transmission to humans has a precedent, as most current human coronaviruses originated in animals. Zoonotic transmission is also supported by the fact that RaTG13 binds to hACE2, although the fit is not optimal. [8] [25]

The investigative team noted the requirement for further studies, noting that these would "potentially increase knowledge and understanding globally." [26] [8] : 9 

Reception

WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom, who was not directly involved with the investigation, said he was ready to dispatch additional missions involving specialist experts and that further research was required. He said in a statement, "Some explanations may be more probable than others, but for now all possibilities remain on the table". [27] He also said, "We have not yet found the source of the virus, and we must continue to follow the science and leave no stone unturned as we do." Tedros also called on China to provide "more timely and comprehensive data sharing" as part of future investigations. [28]

News outlets noted that though it was unrealistic to expect quick and huge results from the report, it "offered few clear-cut conclusions regarding the start of the pandemic", "failed to audit the Chinese official position at some parts of the report", and was "biased according to critics". [29] [30] [31] [32] Other scientists praised how the report details the pathways that can shed light on the origin, if explored later. [33]

After the publication of the report, politicians, talk show hosts, journalists, and some scientists advanced unsupported claims that SARS-CoV-2 may have come from the WIV. [34] In the United States, calls to investigate a laboratory leak reached a "fever pitch", fueling aggressive rhetoric resulting in antipathy towards people of Asian ancestry, [34] [35] and the bullying of scientists. [36] [37] [38] The United States, European Union, and 13 other countries criticised the WHO-convened study, calling for transparency from China and access to the raw data and original samples. [39] Chinese officials described these criticisms as an attempt to politicise the study. [40] Scientists involved in the WHO report, including Liang Wannian, John Watson, and Peter Daszak, objected to the criticism, and said that the report was an example of the collaboration and dialogue required to successfully continue investigations into the matter. [41]

In a letter published in Science , a number of scientists, including Ralph Baric, argued that the accidental laboratory leak hypothesis had not been sufficiently investigated and remained possible, calling for greater clarity and additional data. [42] Their letter was criticized by some virologists and public health experts, who said that a "hostile" and "divisive" focus on the WIV was unsupported by evidence, and would cause Chinese scientists and authorities to share less, rather than more data. [34]

Phase 2

On 27 May 2021, Danish epidemiologist Tina Fischer spoke on the This Week in Virology podcast, advocating for a second phase of the study to audit blood samples for COVID-19 antibodies in China. [43] [44] WHO-convened study team member Marion Koopmans, on that same broadcast, advocated for WHO member states to make a decision on the second phase of the study, though she also cautioned that an investigatory audit of the laboratory itself may be inconclusive. [43] [44] In early July 2021, WHO emergency chief Michael Ryan said the final details of phase 2 were being worked out in negotiations between WHO and its member states, as the WHO works "by persuasion" and cannot compel any member state (including China) to cooperate. [45]

In July 2021 China rejected WHO requests for greater transparency, cooperation, and access to data as part of Phase 2. On 16 July 2021, Foreign Ministry spokesperson Zhao Lijian declared that China's position was that future investigations should be conducted elsewhere and should focus on cold chain transmission and the US military's labs. [46] On 22 July 2021, the Chinese government held a press conference in which Zeng Yixin, Vice Health Minister of the National Health Commission (NHC), said that China would not participate in a second phase of the WHO's investigation, denouncing it as "shocking" and "arrogant". He elaborated "In some aspects, the WHO's plan for next phase of investigation of the coronavirus origin doesn't respect common sense, and it's against science. It's impossible for us to accept such a plan."

See also

Related Research Articles

EcoHealth Alliance is a US-based non-governmental organization with a stated mission of protecting people, animals, and the environment from emerging infectious diseases. The nonprofit is focused on research that aims to prevent pandemics and promote conservation in hotspot regions worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">W. Ian Lipkin</span> Professor, microbiologist, epidemiologist

Walter Ian Lipkin is the John Snow Professor of Epidemiology at the Mailman School of Public Health at Columbia University and a professor of Neurology and Pathology at the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University. He is also director of the Center for Infection and Immunity, an academic laboratory for microbe hunting in acute and chronic diseases. Lipkin is internationally recognized for his work with West Nile virus, SARS and COVID-19.

Shi Zhengli is a Chinese virologist who researches SARS-like coronaviruses of bat origin. Shi directs the Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases at the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV). In 2017, Shi and her colleague Cui Jie discovered that the SARS coronavirus likely originated in a population of cave-dwelling horseshoe bats in Xiyang Yi Ethnic Township, Yunnan. She came to prominence in the popular press as "Batwoman" during the COVID-19 pandemic for her work with bat coronaviruses. Shi was included in Time's 100 Most Influential People of 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SARS-CoV-2</span> Virus that causes COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) is a strain of coronavirus that causes COVID-19, the respiratory illness responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. The virus previously had the provisional name 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), and has also been called human coronavirus 2019. First identified in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China, the World Health Organization designated the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern from January 30, 2020, to May 5, 2023. SARS‑CoV‑2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that is contagious in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market</span> Market in Wuhan, Hubei, China

The Wuhan Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, simply known as the Huanan Seafood Market, was a live animal and seafood market in Jianghan District, Wuhan City, the capital of Hubei Province, in Central China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wuhan Institute of Virology</span> Research Institute in Wuhan, Hubei, China

The Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences is a research institute on virology administered by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), which reports to the State Council of the People's Republic of China. The institute is one of nine independent organisations in the Wuhan Branch of the CAS. Located in Jiangxia District, Wuhan, Hubei, it was founded in 1956 and opened mainland China's first biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) laboratory in 2018. The institute has collaborated with the Galveston National Laboratory in the United States, the Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie in France, and the National Microbiology Laboratory in Canada. The institute has been an active premier research center for the study of coronaviruses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">COVID-19</span> Contagious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2. The first known case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease quickly spread worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">COVID-19 misinformation</span> False or misleading virus information

False information, including intentional disinformation and conspiracy theories, about the scale of the COVID-19 pandemic and the origin, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease has been spread through social media, text messaging, and mass media. False information has been propagated by celebrities, politicians, and other prominent public figures. Many countries have passed laws against "fake news", and thousands of people have been arrested for spreading COVID-19 misinformation. The spread of COVID-19 misinformation by governments has also been significant.

Pandemic prevention is the organization and management of preventive measures against pandemics. Those include measures to reduce causes of new infectious diseases and measures to prevent outbreaks and epidemics from becoming pandemics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peter Daszak</span> British zoologist

Peter Daszak is a British zoologist, consultant and public expert on disease ecology, in particular on zoonosis. He is the president of EcoHealth Alliance, a nonprofit non-governmental organization that supports various programs on global health and pandemic prevention. He is also a member of the Center for Infection and Immunity at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. He lives in Suffern, New York.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019</span> Sequence of major events in a virus pandemic

This article documents the chronology and epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in 2019, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. The first human cases of COVID-19 known to have been identified were in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019. It marked the beginning of the 2019–2020 COVID-19 outbreak in mainland China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zhang Yongzhen</span> Chinese virologist

Zhang Yongzhen, also known as Yong-Zhen Zhang, is a Chinese virologist known for his work relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. A professor at Fudan University, Zhang has discovered numerous RNA viruses and created a network of labs dedicated to monitoring new viruses. He led the team that sequenced and published the genome of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, in early January 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Origin of COVID-19</span> Inquiries into the origins of SARS-CoV-2

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been efforts by scientists, governments, and others to determine the origin of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Most scientists agree that, as with many other pandemics in human history, the virus is likely derived from a bat-borne virus transmitted to humans via another animal in nature or during wildlife trade such at that in food markets. Many other explanations, including several conspiracy theories, have been proposed. Some scientists and politicians have speculated that SARS-CoV-2 was accidentally released from a laboratory. This theory is not supported by evidence.

The Chinese government has actively engaged in disinformation to downplay the emergence of COVID-19 in China and manipulate information about its spread around the world. The government also detained whistleblowers and journalists claiming they were spreading rumors when they were publicly raising concerns about people being hospitalized for a "mysterious illness" resembling SARS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">COVID-19 lab leak theory</span> Proposed theory on the origins of COVID-19

The COVID-19 lab leak theory, or lab leak hypothesis, is the idea that SARS-CoV-2, the virus that caused the COVID-19 pandemic, came from a laboratory. The claim is highly controversial; most scientists believe the virus spilled into human populations through natural zoonosis, similar to the SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV outbreaks, and consistent with other pandemics in human history. Available evidence suggests that the SARS-CoV-2 virus was originally harbored by bats, and spread to humans from infected wild animals, functioning as an intermediate host, at the Huanan Seafood Market in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019. Several candidate animal species have been identified as potential intermediate hosts. There is no evidence SARS-CoV-2 existed in any laboratory prior to the pandemic, or that any suspicious biosecurity incidents happened in any laboratory.

DRASTIC is a loose collection of internet activists assembled to investigate the origins of COVID-19, in particular the lab leak theory. Composed of about 30 core members, and primarily organized through the social media website Twitter, DRASTIC was formed in February 2020, at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. DRASTIC members called for a "full and unrestricted investigation" into the origins of COVID-19, conducted independently of the World Health Organization; most scientists thought that COVID-19 likely had a natural origin, and some considered that a potential lab leak was worth investigating.

Alina Chan is a Canadian molecular biologist specializing in gene therapy and cell engineering at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, where she is a postdoctoral fellow. During the COVID-19 pandemic she became known for questioning the prevailing consensus regarding the origins of the virus and publicly advocating a laboratory escape hypothesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scientific Advisory Group for Origins of Novel Pathogens</span> WHO advisory group

Scientific Advisory Group for Origins of Novel Pathogens is a permanent advisory body of the World Health Organization, formed in July 2021, with a broad objective to examine emerging infectious diseases, including COVID-19. According to the WHO Director-General, "SAGO will play a vital role in the next phase of studies into the origins of SARS-CoV-2, as well as the origins of future new pathogens." The group was formed after the WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2 was disbanded by the WHO. In February 2022, the WHO Director General visited China and met the Chinese premier and discussed the need for "stronger collaboration on Covid-19 virus origins, rooted in science and evidence". In July 2023, a review article in The New York Times details information to date about the origins of the Covid-19 virus.

The Lancet letter was a statement made in support of scientists and medical professionals in China fighting the outbreak of COVID-19, and condemning theories suggesting that the virus does not have a natural origin, which it referred to as "conspiracy theories". The letter was published in The Lancet on February 19, 2020, and signed by 27 prominent scientists, gaining a further 20,000 signatures in a Change.org petition. The letter generated significant controversy over the alleged conflicts of interest of its authors, and the chilling effect it had on scientists proposing that the COVID-19 lab leak theory be investigated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese government response to COVID-19</span> Response from the Chinese government to COVID-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, the government of China under CCP general secretary Xi Jinping's administration pursued a zero-COVID strategy to prevent the domestic spread of COVID-19 until December 7, 2022. Aspects of the response have been controversial, with the zero-COVID approach being praised and the government's lack of transparency, censorship, and spread of misinformation being criticized. The government abandoned its zero-COVID policy on 7 December 2022.

References

  1. ↑ "WHO-convened global study of origins of SARS-CoV-2: China Part". Who.int.
  2. ↑ "COVID-19 response" (PDF). Apps.who.int. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
  3. ↑ "World Health Assembly: what is it, and what is the coronavirus inquiry proposal?". The Guardian . May 18, 2020.
  4. ↑ McKay, Drew Hinshaw and Betsy (26 September 2021). "WHO Seeks to Revive Stalled Inquiry Into Origins of Covid-19 With New Team". Wsj.com. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
  5. ↑ "'We've done nothing wrong.' EcoHealth leader fights charges that his research helped spark COVID-19". Science.org. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
  6. ↑ "WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the Member State Information Session on Origins". Who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  7. ↑ Dziedzic, Stephen (20 May 2020). "Australia started a fight with China by pushing for a COVID-19 inquiry — was it necessary?". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 "WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2: China Part. Joint Report" (PDF). World Health Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  9. ↑ "US urges WHO to carry out second phase of coronavirus origin study in China". South China Morning Post. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  10. ↑ "WHO's Tedros says 'Let's not politicize probe of virus origins'". Reuters . Geneva. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  11. ↑ Mallapaty, Smriti (2 December 2020). "Meet the scientists investigating the origins of the COVID pandemic". Nature. 588 (7837): 208. Bibcode:2020Natur.588..208M. doi: 10.1038/d41586-020-03402-1 . PMID   33262500.
  12. ↑ Xiao, Xiao; Newman, Chris; Buesching, Christina D.; Macdonald, David W.; Zhou, Zhao-Min (December 2021). "Animal sales from Wuhan wet markets immediately prior to the COVID-19 pandemic". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 11898. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1111898X. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91470-2. PMC   8184983 . PMID   34099828.
  13. ↑ Nebehay, Stephanie (18 January 2021). "U.S. and China clash at WHO over scientific mission in Wuhan". Reuters . Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
  14. ↑ Fujiyama, Emily Wang (28 January 2021). "WHO team in Wuhan departs quarantine for COVID origins study". AP News. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  15. 1 2 Ryan, Jackson (19 January 2021). "How the hunt for COVID-19's origin became a twisted, confusing mess". CNET. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  16. ↑ Chan, Alina; Ridley, Matt (15 January 2021). "The World Needs a Real Investigation Into the Origins of Covid-19". The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  17. ↑ Pielke Jr., Roger (19 January 2021). "If Covid-19 Did Start With a Lab Leak, Would We Ever Know?". Wired . Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
  18. ↑ Sudworth, John (21 December 2020). "Covid: Wuhan scientist would 'welcome' visit probing lab leak theory". BBC News . Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 Fujiyama, Emily Wang; Moritsugu, Ken (11 February 2021). "EXPLAINER: What the WHO coronavirus experts learned in Wuhan". Associated Press News. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  20. ↑ "Wuhan investigation doesn't dramatically change picture of outbreak, WHO official says". The Guardian . 9 February 2021. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  21. ↑ "Covid: WHO says 'extremely unlikely' virus leaked from lab in China". BBC News. 9 February 2021. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  22. ↑ Hjelmgaard, Kim (9 February 2021). "WHO will end research into 'extremely unlikely' theory that COVID-19 originated in Wuhan lab". USA Today. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  23. ↑ Stahl, Lesley (28 March 2021). "What happened in Wuhan? Why questions still linger on the origin of the coronavirus". CBS News . Retrieved 10 June 2021.
  24. ↑ Lardieri, Alexa (9 February 2021). ""WHO: 'Extremely Unlikely' Coronavirus Came From Lab in China"". US News. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  25. ↑ Liu, Kefang; Pan, Xiaoqian; Li, Linjie; Yu, Feng; Zheng, Anqi; Du, Pei; Han, Pengcheng; Meng, Yumin; Zhang, Yanfang; Wu, Lili; Chen, Qian; Song, Chunli; Jia, Yunfei; Niu, Sheng; Lu, Dan; Qiao, Chengpeng; Chen, Zhihai; Ma, Dongli; Ma, Xiaopeng; Tan, Shuguang; Zhao, Xin; Qi, Jianxun; Gao, George F.; Wang, Qihui (24 June 2021). "Binding and molecular basis of the bat coronavirus RaTG13 virus to ACE2 in humans and other species". Cell. 184 (13): 3438–3451.e10. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.031. ISSN   0092-8674. PMC   8142884 . PMID   34139177.
  26. ↑ Kupferschmidt, Kai (30 March 2021). "'Compromise' WHO report resolves little on pandemic's origins, but details probe's next steps". Science. doi:10.1126/science.abi7636. S2CID   233520514 . Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  27. ↑ Maxman, Amy (30 March 2021). "WHO report into COVID pandemic origins zeroes in on animal markets, not labs". Nature. 592 (7853): 173–174. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..173M. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00865-8. PMID   33785930. S2CID   232429241 . Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  28. ↑ Netburn, Deborah (13 May 2021). "Did the coronavirus escape from a lab? The idea deserves a second look, scientists say". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  29. ↑ "4 takeaways from the WHO's report on the origins of the coronavirus". Science News. 1 April 2021.
  30. ↑ Hernández, Javier C. (30 March 2021). "W.H.O. Inquiry on the Pandemic's Origin: What We Know". The New York Times.
  31. ↑ "WHO report says COVID originated in bats, but critics claim the study was biased". PBS NewsHour. 29 March 2021.
  32. ↑ "'Compromise' WHO report resolves little on pandemic's origins, but details probe's next steps". www.science.org.
  33. ↑ Maxmen, Amy (30 March 2021). "WHO report into COVID pandemic origins zeroes in on animal markets, not labs". Nature. 592 (7853): 173–174. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..173M. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00865-8. PMID   33785930. S2CID   232429241.
  34. 1 2 3 Maxman, Amy (27 May 2021). "Divisive COVID 'lab leak' debate prompts dire warnings from researchers". Nature. 594 (7861): 15–16. Bibcode:2021Natur.594...15M. doi: 10.1038/d41586-021-01383-3 . PMID   34045757. S2CID   235232290.
  35. ↑ Alba D (19 March 2021). "How Anti-Asian Activity Online Set the Stage for Real-World Violence". The New York Times.
  36. ↑ Mello MM, Greene JA, Sharfstein JM (August 2020). "Attacks on Public Health Officials During COVID-19". JAMA. 324 (8): 741–742. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.14423 . PMID   32777019. S2CID   221099095.
  37. ↑ Izri T (27 October 2020). "Winnipeg epidemiologist faces online threats, as concerns about COVID-19 misinformation deepen". Winnipeg. Experts say the hostility against public health officials is being fueled in part by online conspiracy theories.
  38. ↑ Marcelo P (20 April 2021). "They were experts in viruses, and now in pitfalls of fame". AP NEWS. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
  39. ↑ Nectar Gan (31 March 2021). "14 countries and WHO chief accuse China of withholding data from coronavirus investigation". CNN. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
  40. ↑ Zarocostas, John (10 April 2021). "Calls for transparency after SARS-CoV-2 origins report". The Lancet. 397 (10282): 1335. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00824-2. ISSN   0140-6736. PMC   8032220 . PMID   33838748. S2CID   233186234. Health diplomats speaking on condition of anonymity said that senior Chinese officials viewed the statements as an attempt to politicise the study.
  41. ↑ Zarocostas, John (10 April 2021). "Calls for transparency after SARS-CoV-2 origins report". The Lancet. 397 (10282): 1335. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00824-2. ISSN   0140-6736. PMC   8032220 . PMID   33838748.
  42. ↑ Bloom, Jesse D.; Chan, Yujia Alina; Baric, Ralph S.; Bjorkman, Pamela J.; Cobey, Sarah; Deverman, Benjamin E.; Fisman, David N.; Gupta, Ravindra; Iwasaki, Akiko; Lipsitch, Marc; Medzhitov, Ruslan; Neher, Richard A.; Nielsen, Rasmus; Patterson, Nick; Stearns, Tim; Nimwegen, Erik van; Worobey, Michael; Relman, David A. (14 May 2021). "Investigate the origins of COVID-19". Science. 372 (6543): 694. Bibcode:2021Sci...372..694B. doi:10.1126/science.abj0016. ISSN   0036-8075. PMC   9520851 . PMID   33986172. S2CID   234487267.
  43. 1 2 Page, Jeremy; Hinshaw, Drew (27 May 2021). "Time Is Running Out in Covid-19 Origins Inquiry, Say WHO-Led Team Members". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  44. 1 2 Raccaniello, Vincent; Daszak, Peter; Koopmans, Marion; Fischer, Tina (27 May 2021). "TWiV 760: SARS-CoV-2 origins with Peter Daszak, Thea Kølsen Fischer, Marion Koopmans" . Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  45. ↑ "Experts question if WHO should lead pandemic origins probe". Washington Post. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  46. ↑ Tiezzi, Shannon. "China Rejects WHO Call for More Transparency on Origins Probe". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.