Bolivia has traditionally undertaken different water resources management approaches aimed at alleviating political and institutional instability in the water sector. The so-called water wars of 2000 and 2006 in Cochabamba and El Alto, respectively, added social unrest and conflict into the difficulties of managing water resources in Bolivia. Evo Morales’ administration is currently developing an institutional and legal framework aimed at increasing participation, especially for rural and indigenous communities, and separating the sector from previous privatization policies. In 2009, the new Environment and Water Resources Ministry was created absorbing the responsibilities previously under the Water Ministry. The Bolivian Government is in the process of creating a new Water Law – the current Water Law was created in 1906 – and increasing much needed investment on hydraulic infrastructure.
The 1906 Water Law (Ley general de aguas) marks the beginning of Bolivia's 20th Century water resources policy. The Water Law includes provisions such as water as a public good and establish Bolivian government as main authority responsible for water management. The definition of water rights is vague, “the water passing through the land belongs to the land owner as long as it does not affect others.” No provision is included for neither groundwater property rights nor water tariffs. The Water Law was minimally modified on 1945, to specify that “no water right includes the right to deny access to water to downstream water users.” In 1988, the Senate prepared a draft to modify the Water Law to include provisions such as groundwater as public domain, and to establish a water fee for farmers based on the area benefited with improved irrigation infrastructure. Similar attempts occurred in 1995 and 1999, when the government together with the World Bank and GTZ drafted a Water Law including some fundamental principles included in the 1988 version plus provisions on institutional framework and concessions of water rights. None of the three drafts turned into a new Water Law.[1]
Despite these efforts to concentrate water resources management into a single legal document, the different sectors involved in water use continue to act separately in accordance with several laws such as the Electricity Act, the Hydrocarbon Act, the Mining Code and the Environmental act. The lack of a clear legal and institutional framework has made difficult to ensure appropriate quality and quantity of water for the different water users in the medium and long term.
Bolivia can be divided into three areas, which correspond to the eastern area (a tropical and subtropical region), the western area (the arid, semi arid and sub-humid dry region), and the Titicaca basin. The hydrographic system consists of three large basins:
the Amazon Basin which measures approximately 724,000km² and covers 66% of Bolivia's territory;
the closed (endorheic) basin, which measures 145,081km² or 13% of the territory; and
the Rio Plata Basin, which covers 229,500km² or 21% of the nation's territory.
The Amazon basin has a high flow of water and it is prone to floods. The Parana basin represents approximately 42% of the total area of Bolivia and it is prone to droughts and desertification. The quantity and quality of hydrological information is very poor.[2]
The gradual decrease in Bolivia's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from industries and cities. For example, in the Andean region, rivers transport high values of organic material, up to 100mg/L. This water is used for irrigated agriculture downstream.
In the Amazon region, erosion and land use upstream, especially mining, deteriorate water quality due to high concentration of sediments. Forestry and agriculture also affect water quality in Bolivia. For example, sugarcane production is considered one of the main causes in the decreasing on fisheries in the Rio Pirai (Santa Cruz)[1]
Water related risks
Natural disasters directly affect Bolivia's development; because they cause capital losses, and damage hydraulic and other type of infrastructures. Such losses, in turn, influence economic indicators such as inflation and production, which in turn increase poverty. Floods and landslides in the rainy season affect a wide range of hydraulic infrastructure. Since year 2000, a notable increase in climate-related disaster situations have been observed in Bolivia, some of them associated with El Niño/La Niña events. In 2002, the Potosi Province experienced an unprecedented heavy snow storm, which affected about 3,000 inhabitants and killed 20,000 animals; and the La Paz Province was struck by a destructive hail, causing the death of 70 persons and US$70 million in losses.[2] In 2004, a prolonged drought affected the Chaco Region, which consists of the Departments of Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija, threatened the food security, health and nutritional status of approximately 180,000 people, of which 15 percent were children. El Niño 2006/2007 event caused economic losses estimated at US$0.44 billion or 4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and affected about 133,100 families or 0.56 million people, equivalent to five times the population affected by El Niño 1997/1998. About 54 percent of the losses occurred in the rural areas. La Niña 2007/2008 event caused damage and losses evaluated at US$0.52 billion, 20 percent higher than the previous event and affected about 123,600 families. The agricultural sector absorbed about 53 percent of these losses and damage.[4]
Potential climate change impacts
According to a study about Climate Change in Bolivia published in 2007 by the Bolivian Government, the anticipated effects of Climate Change on water resources are:
Extreme events: Hydrometeorological extreme events are frequent in Bolivia and will tend to rise in magnitude and intensity by the effect of climate change. The IPCC (2001) foresees greater frequency and intensity of extreme events due to climate change. In recent years, the occurrence of tropical storms has increased in Bolivia, with winds higher than 28m/s according to the Beaufort scale, causing major damage. It has also been observed presence of convective movements with violent hail storms as those registered in the city of La Paz in February 2002 and 2003.
Droughts: Climate change could exacerbate water shortages in the arid and semi-arid valleys and reduce water availability in the highlands. Many productive and urban areas are located in the arid or semi-arid region with rudimentary water systems supplied by wells or rivers. These supply systems are vulnerable to water availability, since they lack reservations that would make water available during the dry season.
Floods: Climate change could increase intense rainfall causing floods that could lead to significant infrastructural damage. According to regional scenarios, it is expected a reduction of periods of rain with an increased probability of heavy rainfall in a short time. In this sense the country still lacks systems to study rainfall patterns as well as early warning systems which increase the vulnerability of the populations especially those in unplanned settlements. In addition, many basins in Bolivia do count with integrated water resources management system in place with activities aimed at watershed protection. This translates into degradation of soils, declining aquifer recharge, reduced availability of water, which overall reduces economic productivity and income of its inhabitants.
Glacier Retreat: Documented glaciers retreat, due to increase of temperatures, may increase seasonal runoff in the short term and increase dependency on seasonal rainfall for water supply in the medium and long term. According to Francou, Bolivia's Chacaltaya glacier, situated 20km NE of the city of La Paz, has lost 82% of its surface area since 1982 and may completely melt by 2013.[5] (See Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary)
Anticipated impacts of Climate Change by Region
Region
Change scenario
Anticipated impacts
Altiplano
Increased precipitation, increased frequency of storms with fewer days of rain, increased frequency of hail, lower river flow
Increasing appearance of frost, increasing need of water for irrigation due to longer dry season, problems with hydropower generation, glacier retreat, crop failure, flooding in the rainy season, lower availability of water for human and animal consumption, lower aquifer recharge, increased competition for water use
Andean Valleys
Increased precipitation, increased frequency of storms with fewer days of rain, increased frequency of hail
Increased competition for water use, biodiversity loss, increasing need of water for irrigation due to longer dry season, increased risk of mudslides, problems with power generation, soil erosion and desertification
Chaco
Longer dry season during the growing season, intense and recurrent droughts, low river flow
Increased competition for water use, biodiversity loss, increased events of heat waves during the summer, soil erosion and desertification, increased pollution of water sources
Amazon
An increase in the amount of rainfall by event, increased cloudiness rate, high atmospheric humidity in summer and severe droughts and
winter
Frequent flooding, infrastructure damage and loss, winter crop failure and livestock loss due to lack of water, increased presence of pests and diseases due to high humidity, biodiversity loss, outbreaks of infectious diseases related to water.
Bolivia’s water and sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country continues to suffer from what happens to be the continent’s lowest coverage levels as well as from low quality of services. The lowest levels of coverage are found in the departments of Pando, Potosí, and Oruro. Increasing coverage requires a substantial increase of investment financing, which has dropped back since 2000.[7]
The next table reflects access to water supply and sanitation services in 2006.
Urban (64% of the population)
Rural (36% of the population)
Total
Water
Broad definition
95%
68%
85%
House connections
90%
44%
73%
Sanitation
Broad definition
60%
22%
46%
Sewerage
39%
2%
26%
Source: Joint Monitoring Program WHO/UNICEF(JMP/2006). Data for water and sanitation based on the Housing Survey (2002), Bolivia Democratic and Health Survey (2003), and Survey of Multiple Indicators by Conglomerates (Encuesta de Multiples Indicadores por Conglomerados, 2000).
The government considers irrigated agriculture as a major contributor to "better quality of life, rural and national development" and is undertaking a major institutional reform in sector including the creation of a National Irrigation Plan. Bolivia has an irrigated area of approximately 2,265km2 or about 11% of the total agriculture land 21,000km3. There are about 5,000 irrigation systems in Bolivia, most of them located in the South and Southwestern areas (Valles and Antiplano). These irrigation systems consist of rudimentary web of canals supplied by rainfall with few regulatory schemes such as dams, which makes them very vulnerable to seasonality of rain. Overall efficiency of irrigation systems varies from 18 to 49% in traditional systems to 35-50% in improved systems. [8]
The electricity sector in Bolivia was privatized in the early 1990s. The supply is dominated by thermal generation (60%), while hydropower (40%) has a smaller share in its generation mix compared to other South American countries (LAC average hydropower capacity is 51%).[9] The electricity coverage in rural areas is among the lowest in Latin America.
Aquatic ecosystems
Bolivian ecosystems are linked with the characteristics of every river basin. The Endorreic basin hosts a typical Central Andean dry puna, the inter-Andean valleys host mountain forest, and the east valleys host tropical forests and wet savannas. The endorreic basin, with little vegetation and precipitation and 40% of Bolivia's population, has traditionally been dedicated to agriculture and mining. In the inter-Andean valleys, with steep slopes, there is a need for irrigation and terraces to avoid soil erosion. These valleys produce high crop yields and benefit Bolivia's overall economy. Drainage systems and fragility of soil are the main challenges in the tropical east. Agriculture in this area has grown to produce soya, cotton, sunflowers, and sugarcane.[1]
Legal and institutional framework
Legal framework
The former Water Ministry made an effort to draft a Water Law integrating the multipurpose use of water on a coherent and unique legal document. It is uncertain whether the new Environment and Water Resources Ministry will continue with this effort. In the meantime, two of the most important sectors in terms of social effect are regulated under a specific law, namely the Water and Sanitation Services Law No. 2066 and the Irrigation Law No. 7828.
The Irrigation Law establishes a system for granting and registering traditional water user rights “guaranteeing legally and permanently water for irrigation.” This registration of water rights for irrigation limits somehow the way in which the government can grant access to other water users through the future Water Law. .[10]
The Water and Sanitation Services Law No. 2029 of 1999, was revised in 2000 after Cochabamba's water war into Law No. 2066. The new law includes provisions for protection of traditional water-sharing arrangements through a system of official licenses and increase local communities participation in decision making processes such as the establishment of water tariffs. The Agency for the Supervision of Basic Sanitation (SISAB), (Superintendencia de Agua y Saneamiento Basico) which grants concessions and licenses and establishes the principles to set prices, tariffs, taxes, and quotas,[11] was not modified by the new Law. The Government of Evo Morales considers passing a new water and sanitation services law called “Water for Life”. According to Vice-Minister Rene Orellana, this new legal framework would eliminate the SISAB and introduce a decentralized regulator in its place. Regulatory taxes would be eliminated along with the legal concept of the concession. A preferential electricity tariff would be introduced for EPSAs and community water rights would be strengthened.[12]
Institutional framework
The Environment and Water Resources Ministry, the national water authority, created in 2009 is responsible for planning, implementing, monitoring, evaluating, and funding plans and policies for water resources management. It consists of three vice ministries: (i) water supply and basic sanitation, (ii) water resources and irrigation, and (iii) environment, biodiversity and climate change.
At the regional level, and according to the Administrative Decentralization Law, the prefectures are responsible for water management and conservation of water resources, including integrated water resources management under a river basing management approach.
At the local level, the municipalities are responsible for water management and development inside its jurisdiction according to the Municipalities Law. Local actors include water users and farmer organizations, campesino communities, indigenous people, public and private enterprises, NGOs, Universities, and public local entities.
The Interinstitucional del Agua (CONIAG), created in 2002 though Decree No. 26599, is aimed at create a forum for government, social and economic organizations to agree on legal, institutional and technical aspects related to water resources management.
Government strategy
Morales’ administration is currently in the process of developing water resources management in Bolivia under the framework of the Policy known as “Agua para Todos.” Particularly the government is aiming at: (i) establishing a sustainable, participatory, and integral water resources management through the Water Resources Management National Strategy, River Basin National Plan and Water Sector Information Program; (ii)protecting ecosystems through a Desertification Prevention Plan; (iii)increasing civil society collaboration through a Coordination Mechanisms Strengthening Plan
Economic aspects
Water pricing, cost recovery and subsidies
The Water Law of 1906 did not establish any type of payment for water use. Irrigation legislation establishes a payment for water use equal to maintenance of the water system. The irrigation associations are in charge of establishing the water tariff which does not include cost recovery or upgrading or extending the water system.
For water supply and sanitation in rural areas, there are per capita subsidies of US$70 for water supply and 65US$ for sanitation. Moreover, there is an indirect subsidy on interest rates for internal financing funds and those projects co financed by Non-governmental organizations.
The campesino and indigenous community have never paid for water use. This together with the fact that they are the poorest group in Bolivia has traditionally excluded this group for water user tariffs in Water Law drafted in the past. Moreover, the Water Law of 1906 does not either establish a system to grant water rights. Hence to this date, there is no document or title defining who and to which extent water can be used in Bolivia.[1]
National investment
Bolivia's national investment on water resources has been in decline at the beginning of this century but has increased in the last couple of years.
The Inter-American Development Bank is currently implementing a US$300,000 project to create a strategy for integrated management of water resources together with the Water Ministry.
The Dutch and Swedish cooperation agencies collaborated with the River Basin and Water Resources Viceministry to create the River Basin National Plan. This plan was approved in May 2007. The River Basin and Water Resources Viceministry is implementing the plan in 12 selected basins in Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz and Oruro departments with a total investment of US$6 million.[13]
The Irrigation Viceministry has channeled national and cooperation funds including US$16 million from CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean, US$18 million from the German government and US$270 million from the Inter-American Development Bank with to prepare and implement a number of irrigation projects.[13] (See article)
The World Bank assists the Bolivian Government in a number of projects with a water resources management component including: (i) Water Related Adaptation to Climate Change, (ii) Emergency Recovery and Disaster Management; (iii) Adaptation to the Impact of Rapid Glacier Retreat in the Tropical Andes; (iv) Urban Infrastructure for the Poor; and (v) Community Development and Food Security.[14]
In the area of Climate Change, Bolivia – together with Bangladesh, Cambodia, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger, Tajikistan and Zambia – has been selected to be part of the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) under the Strategic Climate Fund. The PPCR will provide about $500 million for integrating climate resilience in national development planning. It is expected that water resources management will be an integral part of the activities supported by the fund, whose resources will be channelled through the regional development banks and the World Bank.
↑ Source: Vice Ministry of Public Investment and External Financing
↑ Viceministerio de Riego (July 2007). "Plan Nacional de Riego"(PDF). Ministerio del Agua. pp.20–23. Archived from the original(PDF) on August 28, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
Water supply and sanitation in Mexico is characterized by achievements and challenges. Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped water supply in urban areas as well as in rural areas between 1990 and 2010. Additionally, a strong nationwide increase in access to improved sanitation was observed in the same period. Other achievements include the existence of a functioning national system to finance water and sanitation infrastructure with a National Water Commission as its apex institution; and the existence of a few well-performing utilities such as Aguas y Drenaje de Monterrey.
Water supply and sanitation in Colombia have been improved in many ways over the past decades. Between 1990 and 2010, access to improved sanitation increased from 67% to 82%, but access to improved water sources increased only slightly from 89% to 94%. In particular, coverage in rural areas lags behind. Furthermore, despite improvements, the quality of water and sanitation services remains inadequate. For example, only 73% of those receiving public services receive water of potable quality and in 2006 only 25% of the wastewater generated in the country underwent any kind of treatment.
Water supply and sanitation in Chile were once considered efficient and equitable but in 2022 Chile struggled to reliably provide water throughout the country due to drought. Chile's water resources have been strained by the Chilean water crisis, which was partially caused by a continuing megadrought that began in 2010, along with an increased demand for agricultural and other commercial interests.
Access to at least basic water increased from 94% to 97% between 2000 and 2015; an increase in access to at least basic sanitation from 73% to 86% in the same period;
Drinking water and sanitation in Nicaragua are provided by a national public utility in urban areas and water committees in rural areas. Despite relatively high levels of investment, access to drinking water in urban areas has barely kept up with population growth, access to urban sanitation has actually declined and service quality remains poor. However, a substantial increase in access to water supply and sanitation has been reached in rural areas.
Bolivia's drinking water and sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country continues to suffer from what happens to be the continent's lowest coverage levels and from low quality of services. Political and institutional instability have contributed to the weakening of the sector's institutions at the national and local levels. Two concessions to foreign private companies in two of the three largest cities—Cochabamba and La Paz/El Alto—were prematurely ended in 2000 and 2006 respectively. The country's second largest city, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, relatively successfully manages its own water and sanitation system by way of cooperatives. The government of Evo Morales intends to strengthen citizen participation within the sector. Increasing coverage requires a substantial increase of investment financing.
The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made important advances in the last two decades, including the increase of water coverage from 30% to 85% between 1980 and 2010. Sanitation coverage has also increased from 9% to 37% from 1985 to 2010 in rural areas. Advances have also been achieved concerning the disinfection of drinking water and in sewage treatment. Nevertheless, many challenges remain, such as:
The drinking water supply and sanitation sector in Guatemala is characterized by low and inconsistent service coverage, especially in rural areas; unclear allocation of management responsibilities; and little or no regulation and monitoring of service provision.
Water supply and sanitation in Spain is characterized by universal access and good service quality, while tariffs are among the lowest in the EU. Almost half of the population is served by private or mixed private-public water companies, which operate under concession contracts with municipalities. The largest of the private water companies, with a market share of about 50% of the private concessions, is Aguas de Barcelona (Agbar). However, the large cities are all served by public companies except Barcelona and Valencia. The largest public company is Canal de Isabel II, which serves the metropolitan area of Madrid.
Water resources and irrigation infrastructure in Peru vary throughout the country. The coastal region, an arid but fertile land, has about two-thirds of Peru's irrigation infrastructure due to private and public investment aimed at increasing agricultural exports. The Highlands and Amazon regions, with abundant water resources but rudimentary irrigation systems, are home to the majority of Peru's poor, many of whom rely on subsistence or small-scale farming.
While Peru accounts for about four per cent of the world's annual renewable water resources, over 98% of its water is available east of the Andes, in the Amazon region. The coastal area of Peru, with most of economic activities and more than half of the population, receives only 1.8% of the national freshwater renewable water resources. Economic and population growth are taking an increasing toll on water resources quantity and quality, especially in the coastal area of Peru.
Water resources management is a significant challenge for Mexico. The country has in place a system of water resources management that includes both central (federal) and decentralized institutions. Furthermore, water management is imposing a heavy cost to the economy.
Mexico, a classified arid and semi-arid country, has a total land area of 2 million square kilometres, 23% of which is equipped for irrigated agriculture. The agricultural sector plays an important role in the economic development of the country accounting for 8.4 of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and employing 23% of the economically active population. Irrigated agriculture contributes about 50% of the total value of agricultural production and accounts for about 70% of agriculture exports. Mexico's government initiated a number of structural reforms in the water sector aimed to introduce modern water management and irrigation.
Bolivia’s government considers irrigated agriculture as a major contributor to "better quality of life, rural and national development." After a period of social unrest caused by the privatization of water supply in Cochabamba and La Paz, the government of Evo Morales is undertaking a major institutional reform in the water resources management and particularly in the irrigation sector, aimed at: (i) including indigenous and rural communities in decision making, (ii) integrating technical and traditional knowledge on water resources management and irrigation, (iii) granting and registering water rights, (iv) increasing efficiency of irrigation infrastructure, (v) enhancing water quality, and (v) promoting necessary investment and financial sustainability in the sector. Bolivia is the first country in Latin America with a ministry dedicated exclusively to integrated water resources management: the Water Ministry.
There is a long and established framework for water resources management in Colombia. The Environment Ministry and up to 33 Regional Authorities, are in charge of water resources management and policies at the national and regional and watershed level, respectively. Other sectoral ministries are in charge of water demand for energy, water supply and sanitation and water for irrigation.
The water resources management system in Uruguay has been influenced by the general sense of water as an abundant resource in the country. Average annual rainfall is 1,182 mm, representing a contribution of 210 km3 annually throughout its territory. In 2002, the per capita renewable water resources was 41,065 cubic meters, way above the world average 8,467 m3 in 2006. Uruguay also shares one of the largest groundwater reserves in the world, the Guarani Aquifer, with Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay. The Guarani aquifer covers 1,200,000 square kilometers and has a storage capacity of 40,000 km3.
Water resources management (WRM) in Honduras is a work in progress and at times has advanced; however, unstable investment and political climates, strong weather phenomena, poverty, lack of adequate capacity, and deficient infrastructures have and will continue to challenge developments to water resource management. The State of Honduras is working on a new General Water Law to replace the 1927 Law on Using National Waters and designed to regulate water use and management. The new water law will also create a Water Authority, and the National Council of Water Resources which will serve as an advising and consultative body.
Water supply and sanitation in Morocco is provided by a wide array of utilities. They range from private companies in the largest city, Casablanca, the capital, Rabat, Tangier, and Tetouan, to public municipal utilities in 13 other cities, as well as a national electricity and water company (ONEE). The latter is in charge of bulk water supply to the aforementioned utilities, water distribution in about 500 small towns, as well as sewerage and wastewater treatment in 60 of these towns.
Costa Rica is divided into three major drainage basins encompassing 34 watersheds with numerous rivers and tributaries, one major lake used for hydroelectric generation, and two major aquifers that serve to store 90% of the municipal, industrial, and agricultural water supply needs of Costa Rica. Agriculture is the largest water user demanding around 53% of total supplies while the sector contributes 6.5% to the Costa Rica GDP. About a fifth of land under cultivation is being irrigated by surface water. Hydroelectric power generation makes up a significant portion of electricity usage in Costa Rica and much of this comes from the Arenal dam.
Water resources management in Nicaragua is carried out by the National water utility and regulated by the Nicaraguan Institute of water. Nicaragua has ample water supplies in rivers, groundwater, lagoons, and significant rainfall. Distribution of rainfall is uneven though with more rain falling on an annual basis in the Caribbean lowlands and much lower amounts falling in the inland areas. Significant water resources management challenges include contaminated surface water from untreated domestic and industrial wastewater, and poor overall management of the available water resources.
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