The warrah – now extinct – was the only native land mammal found on the islands upon their discovery by Europeans.
The wildlife of the Falkland Islands is quite similar to that of Patagonia. The Falkland Islands have no native reptiles or amphibians, and the only native land mammal, the warrah, is now extinct. However, a large number of bird species have been seen around the islands, and many of them breed on the smaller islands of the archipelago. Insects play a large role in the ecosystem of the islands, and over 200 species have been recorded. The waters around the Falkland Islands sustain many animals, including a large number of marine mammals. Three pinniped species breed on the islands.
There are no trees native to the area, leading to a wide proliferation of grass species. This includes tussac grass, the dense leaves of which provide a micro-climate for many bird and invertebrate species. Small bushes are also found, along with a small number of freshwater plants. The plant species vary with different factors such as the fertility of the soil, the humidity, and altitude.
There is a lack of data about many species in the islands, as well as a lack of long-term data about the environment. Introduced animals are having a detrimental effect on native wildlife, which is now mainly restricted to smaller offshore islands. Some native animals are protected, but many are not, due to a lack of information about them.
There are two main islands in the archipelago, East Falkland and West Falkland, along with over 700 smaller ones.[1] 19 land habitats are recognised.[4] The soil types in the island vary, due to the relative dryness of the west compared to the east and differences in altitude. Many coastal areas have tussac grass, which needs high humidity and salty air to flourish. Inland habitats are often heath, either grass or shrubs, or feldmark made of cushion plants. Lowlands have acidic peaty soil with a low fertility. These lowlands support grass in wetter areas, but only shrubs in the drier areas. In the areas with high nutrient levels, the lowlands can support turf,[6] however most peat is very shallow and lies on top of clay.[7] Mountain vegetation consists mainly of cushion plants, moss and lichen dominated heaths.[8]
The archipelago had only one terrestrial mammal upon the arrival of Europeans, the Falkland Islands wolf (also known as warrah), found on both major islands.[9] It was traditionally thought that Patagonian Indians once brought the warrah to the islands as a hunting dog. However, a 2009 DNA study by scientists at UCLA suggested that the warrah arrived on the islands long before humans migrated to the New World. It possibly arrived through crossing an ice-bridge at a time of low sea-levels, such as particularly cold periods 340,000 years ago, 150,000 years ago or 25,000 years ago. Its nearest relative was the maned wolf, an extant South American canid.[10][11] It became extinct in the mid-19th century[1] as human settlement spread.[9] 14species of marine mammals including killer whales, Peale's dolphins, Commerson's dolphins, leopard seals, southern elephant seals, and southern sea lions frequent the surrounding waters.[12] Elephant seals, fur seals, and sea lions all breed on the islands, and the largest elephant seal breeding site has over 500 animals in it.[13] Other species, especially cetaceans, are also sometimes seen.[14] Populations of large whales, drastically reduced by illegal whaling carried out by the Soviet Union until the late 1970s, are now recovering. These include southern right whales, humpback whales, blue whales, fin whales, sei whales, and sperm whales.[15]
227bird species have been seen on the islands,[4] over 60 of which are known to breed on the islands.[13] 21 of the resident species are land birds, and 18 are water birds. There are 22species of seabirds which breed on the islands, and at least 18annual migrators who breed elsewhere. There are two endemic species of bird (the Falkland steamer duck and Cobb's wren), and 14endemic subspecies.[4]
There are five penguin species breeding on the islands, king penguins, rockhopper penguins, magellanic penguins, gentoo penguins, and macaroni penguins.[16] Approximately 494,500breeding pairs are thought to live on the island, 500 of which are king penguins.[1] Five other species have been recorded, but do not have a breeding population.[4] The largest breeding population of black-browed albatross is found on the islands,[1] making up over 80% of the world's black-browed albatross population.[16] This is the only breeding species of albatross, although nine others have been recorded.[4] Many species of petrel also nest on the Falklands. Most remaining bird colonies exist on remote offshore islands.[13]
There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the islands. Over 200species of insects have been recorded, along with 43spider species and 12worm species. Over 60species of true flies live on the islands, 12species of wasps, and 20species of butterflies and moths. There is a high diversity of beetles species, with 110species of which 15 are ground beetles, 20 are weevils, and 16 are darkling beetles. There are 15species of hemiptera, and 12booklice. Only 13terrestrial invertebrates are recognised as endemic, although information on many species in lacking and it is suspected up to two thirds of species found are actually endemic, including 16spiders. Insects are important as decomposers, and also make up a large portion of the diet of some bird species. Due to the island environment, many insect species have developed reduced or absent wings. There are around 129freshwater invertebrates, the majority being rotifer, however the identification of some species remains in dispute.[4]
Six species of fish are found in freshwater areas including the zebra trout (Aplochiton zebra), the Falklands minnow (a.k.a. common galaxias, Galaxias maculatus), which is among the most widespread fishes in the world.[5][17] Many of these native species are amphidromous, spending part of their lives at sea.[5] Introduced brown trout, have been established in many freshwater streams and have also formed sea-runs resulting in an increase in body size.[18][19] Due to the introduction of brown trout and other fish species the endemic zebra trout (a galaxiid fish unrelated to typical salmonid trout) is now restricted to small streams in remote parts of West Falkland and Lafonia.[19] Different species of krill are found in Falkland waters, with lobster krill inhabiting the warmer waters in the north.[20]
Tussac grass, which averages 2m (6.6ft) in height but can reach up to 4m (13ft), consists of a tussock of vegetation around a fibrous central pedestal. They are known to live for over 200 years, and can become large enough for birds to nest on. Due to the need for high humidity and salty air, tussac grass is not found more than 300m (1,000ft) from the coast, causing it to form bands around larger islands. The dead leaves that accumulate in these areas make them highly fertile, although few other species can grow due to the density of the grass. The dense canopies formed create an insulated micro-climate suitable for many birds and invertebrates.[21]
Heath is found commonly inland, made up of either grass or shrubs. The most common grass species is whitegrass (Cortaderia pilosa) which covers the majority of the main islands. These grasses support other flowering plants, along with insects and birds. The shrub heath is composed mostly of low-growing shrubs such as diddle-dee (Empetrum rubrum), and also hosts many other plant species along with invertebrates and small birds. In the feldmark environments formed on exposed ridges and higher areas, cushion plants such as balsam bog (Bolax gummifera). Species of fern can also grow in such areas. In the most extreme areas, only lichen and specialised plants such as snakeplants (Nassauvia serpens) can grow.[22]} More than 400 species of lichens and lichen-dwelling fungi in 161 genera have been recorded from the island.[23] Teaberry (Myrteola nummularia) grows in marshy areas.[24]
The pale maiden (Olsynium filifolium) is the Falkland Island's proposed national flower.[13]
Issues and introduced species
There is little long-term data on habitat changes, so the extent of human impact is unclear, although threats such as invasive species and camp burning are recognised.[4] Vegetation such as tussac grass, fachine, and native box have been heavily affected by introduced grazing animals. Tussac grass now exists in only 20% of its former range, mostly offshore islands, as a result of its extreme sensitivity. Many breeding birds similarly live only on offshore islands, where introduced animals, such as cats and rats, are not found.[25] The only native terrestrial mammal, the warrah, was wiped out in the mid-19thcentury.[1]
Wildlife tourism is growing, and steps are being taken to protect the wildlife of the islands. Some protection exists under the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance 1999. Only two bird species lack legal protection. One fish species, the zebra trout, is protected. Amid a lack of information on invertebrates, legislation exists to protect only butterflies.[4]
Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep. There is also an introduced reindeer population, which was brought to the islands in 2001 for commercial purposes.[26] Rats have been introduced in the area, and guanacos were introduced south of Mount Pleasant in 1862 so Prince Alfred could hunt them in 1871. However, the introduction was generally unsuccessful, and they died out everywhere except Staats Island.[9]South American gray foxes were introduced and are having a detrimental impact on birds that nest on the shores, as are feral cats. A number of invertebrate species have been introduced since the arrival of Europeans, some filling niches that were not previously filled. House sparrows and domestic geese are the only introduced bird species. Introduced fish species exist, such as the brown trout. Twenty-two introduced plant species are thought to provide a significant threat to local flora.[4]
The climate and soil composition, combined with limited knowledge and inadequate protection have meant that past attempts to establish trees on the islands have not been very successful,[7] although various attempts have been made over the past 80 years. Having trees in place to disrupt the cold winds of the islands would positively impact sheep farming, improving lamb survival rates and help with recovery from stress. It could also allow for some crops to be farmed, providing shelter and enhancing soil quality.[27] A 1983 study determined that it may be possible to plant trees for wind shelter, although imported stock would have to be used as it was impractical to raise sufficient numbers on the islands. A small number of sizeable plots exist, but they are largely confined to sites near houses and gardens.[7]
The Falkland Islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean between 51°S and 53°S on a projection of the Patagonian Shelf, part of the South American continental shelf. In ancient geological time this shelf was part of Gondwana, and around 400 million years ago split from what is now Africa and drifted westwards from it. Today the islands are subjected to the Roaring Forties, winds that shape both their geography and climate.
Bleaker Island is one of the Falkland Islands, lying off south east Lafonia. The name is a corruption of "Breaker Island" due to the waves that break on it. It was also known as "Long Island" at one point.
Carcass Island is the largest of the West Point Island Group of the Falkland Islands.
The Jason Islands are an archipelago in the Falkland Islands, lying to the far north-west of West Falkland. Three of the islands, Steeple Jason, Grand Jason and Clarke's Islet, are private nature reserves owned by the Wildlife Conservation Society of New York City. Other islands in the group are National Nature Reserves owned by the Falkland Islands Government.
Sea Lion Island is the largest of the Sea Lion Island Group of the Falkland Islands. It is 9 km2 (3 sq mi) in area. and lies 14 km (9 mi) southeast of Lafonia. It was designated a Ramsar site on 24 September 2001, and as an Important Bird Area. In 2017 the island was designated as a National Nature Reserve.
New Island is one of the Falkland Islands, lying north of Beaver Island. It is 238 km (148 mi) from Stanley and is 13 km (8.1 mi) long with an average width of 750 m (820 yd). The highest point is 226 metres (741 ft). The northern and eastern coasts have high cliffs but the eastern coasts are lower lying, with rocky shores and sandy bays. There are several smaller offshore islands in the group; North Island and Saddle Island have high cliffs but Ship Island and Cliff Knob Island are lower lying.
Beauchene Island is the southernmost of the Falkland Islands, lying about 54 kilometres (34 mi) south of Porpoise Point in Lafonia. It was discovered in 1701 by Jacques Gouin de Beauchêne, after whom it was named.
The flora and fauna of Bermuda form part of a unique ecosystem due to Bermuda's isolation from the mainland of North America. The wide range of endemic species and the islands form a distinct ecoregion, the Bermuda subtropical conifer forests.
Polar ecology is the relationship between plants and animals in a polar environment. Polar environments are in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Arctic regions are in the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains land and the islands that surrounds it. Antarctica is in the Southern Hemisphere and it also contains the land mass, surrounding islands and the ocean. Polar regions also contain the subantarctic and subarctic zone which separate the polar regions from the temperate regions. Antarctica and the Arctic lie in the polar circles. The polar circles are imaginary lines shown on maps to be the areas that receives less sunlight due to less radiation. These areas either receive sunlight or shade 24 hours a day because of the earth's tilt. Plants and animals in the polar regions are able to withstand living in harsh weather conditions but are facing environmental threats that limit their survival.
Saint Helena, Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha, as well the other uninhabited islands nearby, are a haven for wildlife in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. The islands are or were home to much endemic flora and fauna, especially invertebrates, and many endemic fish species are found in the reef ecosystems off the islands. The islands have been identified by BirdLife International as Important Bird Areas for both their endemic landbirds and breeding seabirds.
Kidney Island so called due to its shape, is a small island with a land area of 33 hectares, to the east of East Falkland, not far from Stanley. It lies is at the east end of Berkeley Sound near Kidney Cove, and is separated from Port William by Menguera Point. It is a nature reserve and, unlike most of the main islands, is still covered in tussac grass. Its wildlife includes penguins and sea lions. It is one of only three places in the archipelago where king penguins breed; the others are Saunders Island and Volunteer Point on East Falkland.
The Kerguelen Islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra ecoregion that includes several subantarctic islands. In this cold climate plant life is mainly limited to grasses, mosses and lichens, although the islands are also known for the indigenous edible Kerguelen cabbage. The islands are at the Antarctic convergence, where cold water moving up from the Antarctic mixes with the warmer water of the Indian Ocean. As a consequence, marine mammals, especially seals, and seabirds and penguins are numerous.
Bird Island is one of the Falkland Islands. It lies due south of West Falkland, near Port Stephens and Calm Head. It has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.
The flora and fauna of the Outer Hebrides in northwest Scotland comprises a unique and diverse ecosystem. A long archipelago, set on the eastern shores of the Atlantic Ocean, it attracts a wide variety of seabirds, and thanks to the Gulf Stream a climate more mild than might be expected at this latitude. Because it is on the Gulf Stream, it also occasionally gets exotic visitors.
The Ascension scrub and grasslands ecoregion covers the dormant volcano, Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean. As well as shrubs and grasses wildlife on the island includes a range of unique flora and fauna. In particular the surrounding islets are important havens for many seabirds. However the seabird populations on Ascension Island itself have been severely affected by introduced species, especially cats, which were the subject of an eradication campaign between 2002 and 2006.
The ecology of the Rocky Mountains is diverse due to the effects of a variety of environmental factors. The Rocky Mountains are the major mountain range in western North America, running from the far north of British Columbia in Canada to New Mexico in the southwestern United States, climbing from the Great Plains at or below 1,800 feet (550 m) to peaks of over 14,000 feet (4,300 m). Temperature and rainfall varies greatly also and thus the Rockies are home to a mixture of habitats including the alpine, subalpine and boreal habitats of the Northern Rocky Mountains in British Columbia and Alberta, the coniferous forests of Montana and Idaho, the wetlands and prairie where the Rockies meet the plains, a different mix of conifers on the Yellowstone Plateau in Wyoming, the montane forests of Utah, and in the high Rockies of Colorado and New Mexico, and finally the alpine tundra of the highest elevations.
The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles, having adapted to the dryness, low temperatures, and high exposure common in Antarctica. The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands, which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water. Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice. The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life, both in the water column and on the seabed.
The wildlife of Iceland is the wild plant and animal life found on the island of Iceland, located in the north Atlantic Ocean just south of the Arctic Circle. The flora, fauna, and funga is limited by the geography and climate of the island. The habitats on the island include high mountains, lava fields, tundras, rivers, lakes and a coastal plain of varying width. There is a long coastline, much dissected by fjords, especially in the west, north and east, with many offshore islets.
Located in the Scandinavian Peninsula, Sweden is a mountainous country dominated by lakes and forests. Its habitats include mountain heath, montane forests, tundra, taiga, beech forests, rivers, lakes, bogs, brackish, marine coasts, and cultivated land. The climate of Sweden is mild for a country at this latitude, largely owing to the significant maritime influence.
The Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands is a terrestrial ecoregion which covers the Tristan da Cunha archipelago and Gough Island in the South Atlantic Ocean. The islands' remote location gave rise to many endemic species.
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