1033 Jordan Rift Valley earthquake

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1033 Jordan Rift Valley earthquake
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Local date5 December 1033 (1033-12-05)
Magnitude~7.3 Mw
Epicenter 32°30′N35°30′E / 32.5°N 35.5°E / 32.5; 35.5 [1]
Type Strike-slip
Areas affectedmodern-day Israel and State of Palestine
Max. intensity MMI X (Extreme)
Casualties70,000 dead

An earthquake struck the Jordan Rift Valley on December 5, AD 1033 and caused extreme devastation in the Levant region. It was part of a sequence of four strong earthquakes in the region between 1033 and 1035. Scholars have estimated the moment magnitude to be greater than 7.0 Mw  and evaluated the Modified Mercalli intensity to X (Extreme). It triggered a tsunami along the Mediterranean coast, causing damage and fatalities. At least 70,000 people were killed in the disaster.

Contents

The Jordan Valley Fault (abbreviated JVF) was the source of the large earthquakes of 31 BC, AD 346, 749 and 1033. DeadSeaTransform.png
The Jordan Valley Fault (abbreviated JVF) was the source of the large earthquakes of 31 BC, AD 346, 749 and 1033.

Tectonic setting

In the past 2,000 years of human history, documented earthquakes have been associated with the 1,100 km (680 mi) long Dead Sea Transform Fault System, a left-lateral transform boundary. [2] Since the early Miocene, the fault system has accounted for between 110 km (68 mi) and 70–80 km (43–50 mi) of left-lateral displacement between the African and Arabian Plates. While left-lateral strike-slip is dominant, the fault also display features of normal and thrust faulting. The fault displays varying slip rates across its segments, 2–10 mm (0.079–0.394 in) per year. The Jordan Valley fault forms part of the larger system of faults that is collectively known as the Dead Sea Transform. This segment is 110 km (68 mi) long and trends north–south; beginning at the Dead Sea and terminating at the Sea of Galilee. [3]

Earthquake

The earthquake is thought to have ruptured the entire Jordan Valley Fault segment, based on reports of heavy damage reported from the Dead Sea to the Sea of Galilee. The historical record also showed that the pattern of damage was similar to another earthquake in AD 749. [4] Both the 749 AD and 1033 AD earthquakes ruptured the Jordan Valley Faults with magnitudes exceeding 7.0. Earlier earthquakes in 31 BC and 363 AD are thought to have been caused by the same segment rupturing. [5] Paleoseismological studies near Jericho and the Sea of Galilee revealed evidence of surface ruptures. [3] Evident in the sedimentary layers are also signs of disturbed sediments thought to be caused by the earthquake. [6]

Little research has been made to estimate the magnitude of the earthquake, and there is a great discrepancy in the range of magnitudes. A 2004 study by Migowski and others estimated the magnitude at 7.1, basing the number on the studies of disturbed sedimentary layers. Older papers also placed the magnitude as low as 6.0–6.7. [7] Most scholars however, agree with a magnitude range of 6.7–7.1. [7] [8] Earthquake magnitude catalogs prepared by researchers have also been scrutinized with its reliability and credibility questioned. [1] Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology placed the energy magnitude (Me ) at 7.3, [9] and a recent (2020) catalog reevaluated the earthquake to a moment magnitude of 7.3 Mw . [1]

Devastation

Extent, places most affected

Heavy damage was reported in a north–south trend for 190 km (120 mi) from the Dead Sea to the Sea of Galilee. One-third of the city of Ramla was destroyed. [10] Half of Nablus was destroyed and 300 residents died. The landscape around the city was also devastated. Acre experienced great damage and a high death toll. The cities of Banias and Jericho were also among those who suffered the greatest destruction. A landslide buried the village of al-Badan, killing all its residents and livestock. Landslides also destroyed other villages and killed most of their population. Banias was partially destroyed. In Syria, entire villages were "swallowed" by the earth, causing fatalities. In Gaza, the Great Mosque of Gaza and the surrounding minarets collapsed. A lighthouse in the city sustained heavy damage. Reports of serious damage also came from Ascalon. Damage was reported as far away as Egypt. Sahil A. Alsinawi and others reported a death toll of 70,000. [11]

Jerusalem

Parts of the Walls of Jerusalem collapsed and many churches were damaged. A side of the Temple Mount and the so-called mihrab Daud, located near the Jaffa Gate, collapsed. The entire southern section of the city walls which enclosed Mount Zion above the Kidron Valley, which were built by Aelia Eudocia (the fifth-century wife of the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II), were abandoned by Fatimid caliph Al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah who established major restoration projects that lasted from 1034 to 1038. [12] It is believed to be the largest restoration project in the city's history. The Dome of the Rock was enforced with wooden beams to strengthen the structure. Wooden beams and mosaics were added to the al-Aqsa Mosque. Solomon's Stables and al-Aqsa Mosque were among the structures that underwent restoration. [12] [13]

Jericho

Shear fractures and column failures at Hisham's Palace, Jericho, photographed in the 1930s Excavations at Khirbet Mefjer near Ain el-Sultan, Jericho looking N.W. showing baths LOC matpc.03717.jpg
Shear fractures and column failures at Hisham's Palace, Jericho, photographed in the 1930s

Hisham's Palace in Jericho was destroyed; it was previously thought that the palace was destroyed during the AD 749 earthquake, but the relatively low intensity (VII) suggest it was not the responsible earthquake. Academic studies noted fracture alignments on the ruin floor. Evidence of column and wall failures were present. Geological faulting was also found in the excavated area; the ruins displayed up to 10 cm (3.9 in) of left-lateral faulting. Human remains discovered beneath the rubble of a collapsed arch were possibly caused by the earthquake. The Modified Mercalli intensity at the palace was assigned IX–X. It is possible that the palace site was abandoned after the earthquake and reoccupied sometime later. [14]

Tsunami

A tsunami struck the coastal city of Acre. It was reported that the city port became dry for an hour, and a large wave arrived. Waves were also reported along the coast of Lebanon. Greek seismologist Nicholas Ambraseys reported that the tsunami caused no damage or casualties, but this is thought to be a confusion with the 1068 earthquake. Destruction was reported in Acre due to the tsunami. People who scoured the exposed seafloor drowned when the waves arrived. Additional shocks in April or May 1035 AD caused further damage and might be associated with tsunamis. [15]

Future threat

View of the Jordan Valley, where the earthquake occurred. Israel Jordan valley.JPG
View of the Jordan Valley, where the earthquake occurred.

The 1033 AD event was the last large earthquake on the Jordan Valley Fault. Given the estimated slip rate is 4.9 ± 0.2 mm (0.1929 ± 0.0079 in) per year, approximately 5 m (16 ft) of potential slip has been accumulated. An estimated 3.5–5 m (11–16 ft) of slip could be produced during a future earthquake along a 110 km (68 mi) × 20 km (12 mi) fault area. Such an event would suggest an earthquake of Mw  7.4, posing a great seismic threat to the region. [3]

In late 2020, researchers at Tel Aviv University said that an earthquake of magnitude 6.5 is expected to occur in the area, resulting in many fatalities. Researchers also stated that the frequency of large earthquakes in the region is significantly underestimated. [16] Previous studies suggested a recurrence interval of 10,000 years for magnitude 7.5 earthquakes, but the researchers said the figure was 1,300 to 1,400 years. [17] Yosef Shapira, the then State Comptroller of Israel, said that a major earthquake in Israel could kill up to 7,000 people if safety recommendations are not enforced. Reports of the years 2001, 2004 and 2011 found that the Israeli government did not fund any retrofitting works to old construction. Although the government said in 2008 that it would retrofit hospitals and schools, no major changes were made. [18]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jordan Rift Valley</span> Geographic region in the Levant

The Jordan Rift Valley, also Jordan Valley(Hebrew: בִּקְעָת הַיַרְדֵּן Bīqʿāt haYardēn, Arabic: الغور Al-Ghor or Al-Ghawr), also called the Syro-African Depression, is an elongated depression located in modern-day Israel, Jordan and the West Bank. This geographic region includes the entire length of the Jordan River – from its sources, through the Hula Valley, the Korazim block, the Sea of Galilee, the (Lower) Jordan Valley, all the way to the Dead Sea, the lowest land elevation on Earth – and then continues through the Arabah depression, the Gulf of Aqaba whose shorelines it incorporates, until finally reaching the Red Sea proper at the Straits of Tiran.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1999 Düzce earthquake</span> 1999 earthquake in north-central Turkey

The 1999 Düzce earthquake occurred on 12 November at 18:57:22 local time with a moment magnitude of 7.2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), causing damage and at least 845 fatalities in Düzce, Turkey. The epicenter was approximately 100 km (62 mi) to the east of the extremely destructive 1999 İzmit earthquake that happened nearly three months earlier. Both strike-slip earthquakes were caused by movement on the North Anatolian Fault.

An earthquake struck Turkey's eastern Erzincan Province at 1:57:23 a.m. on 27 December 1939 local time with a moment magnitude of 7.8Mw and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (Extreme). It is the joint second most-powerful earthquake recorded in Turkey, tied with the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake. Only the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake was more powerful. This was one of the largest in a sequence of violent shocks to affect Turkey along the North Anatolian Fault between 1939 and 1999. Surface rupturing, with a horizontal displacement of up to 3.7 meters, occurred in a 360 km long segment of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. The earthquake was the most severe natural loss of life in Turkey in the 20th century, with 32,968 dead, and some 100,000 injured.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dead Sea Transform</span> Fault system between the African and Arabian plates

The Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system, also sometimes referred to as the Dead Sea Rift, is a series of faults that run for about 1,000 km from the Maras Triple Junction to the northern end of the Red Sea Rift. The fault system forms the transform boundary between the African Plate to the west and the Arabian Plate to the east. It is a zone of left lateral (sinistral) displacement, signifying the relative motions of the two plates. Both plates are moving in a general north-northeast direction, but the Arabian Plate is moving faster, resulting in the observed left lateral motions along the fault of approximately 107 km at its southern end. A component of extension is also present in the southern part of the transform, which has contributed to a series of depressions, or pull-apart basins, forming the Gulf of Aqaba, Dead Sea, Sea of Galilee, and Hula basins. A component of shortening affects the Lebanon restraining bend, leading to uplift on both sides of the Beqaa valley. There is local transtension in the northernmost part of the fault system, forming the Ghab pull-apart basin. The southern part of the fault system runs roughly along the political border of Lebanon and Israel on its western side, and southern Syria and Jordan on the eastern side.

The 1202 Syria earthquake struck at about dawn on 20 May 1202 with an epicenter in southwestern Syria. The earthquake is estimated to have killed around 30,000 people. It was felt over an extensive area, from Sicily to Mesopotamia and Anatolia to upper Egypt, mostly affecting the Ayyubid Sultanate and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The cities of Tyre, Acre and Nablus were heavily damaged. A magnitude of Ms 7.6 has been estimated with damage up to XI on the Mercalli intensity scale.

The Galilee earthquake of 363 was a pair of severe earthquakes that shook the Galilee and nearby regions on May 18 and 19. The maximum perceived intensity for the events was estimated to be X on the European macroseismic scale. The earthquakes occurred on the portion of the Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba.

The 1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake occurred on November 22 at 06:15 local time and registered 7.3 on the Mw scale. The epicenter was located in the central segment of the Gulf of Aqaba, the narrow body of water that separates Egypt's Sinai Peninsula from the western border of Saudi Arabia. At least 8 people were killed and 30 were injured in the meizoseismal area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">551 Beirut earthquake</span> Earthquake off the Lebanese coast

The 551 Beirut earthquake occurred on 9 July with an estimated magnitude of about 7.5 on the moment magnitude scale and a maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It triggered a devastating tsunami which affected the coastal towns of Byzantine Phoenicia, causing great destruction and sinking many ships. Overall large numbers of people were reported killed, with one estimate of 30,000 by the anonymous pilgrim of Piacenza for Berytus alone.

The 1762 Arakan earthquake occurred at about 17:00 local time on 2 April, with an epicentre somewhere along the coast from Chittagong to Arakan in modern Myanmar. It had an estimated moment magnitude between 8.5 and 8.8 and a maximum estimated intensity of XI (Extreme). It triggered a local tsunami in the Bay of Bengal and caused at least 200 deaths. The earthquake was associated with major areas of both uplift and subsidence. It is also associated with a change in course of the Brahmaputra River to from east of Dhaka to 150 kilometres (93 mi) to the west via the Jamuna River.

The 1941 Andaman Islands earthquake struck the Andaman Islands on June 26 with a magnitude of 7.7 to 8.1. Details of this event are poorly known as much of Southeast Asia was in the turmoil of World War II. The quake caused severe damage in the Andaman Islands. The tsunami it triggered was reported along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India and British Ceylon. There may have been damage and deaths in Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand due to the tsunami.

Two major earthquakes occurred in the Near East on 18 March and 29 May, AD 1068. The two earthquakes are often amalgamated by contemporary sources. The first earthquake had its epicentre somewhere in the northwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula around Tabuk, while the second was most damaging in the city of Ramla in Palestine, some 500 km to the northwest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1918 Celebes Sea earthquake</span> Earthquake in the Philippines

The 1918 Celebes Sea earthquake occurred on August 15 at 12:18 UTC near the Moro Gulf coast of Mindanao. It had a magnitude of 8.3 on the moment magnitude scale and a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It triggered a tsunami of up to 7 m in height and the combined effects of the earthquake and tsunami led to the deaths of 52 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2017 Aegean Sea earthquake</span> Earthquake in Greece and Turkey

On 21 July 2017, a large earthquake measuring 6.6 on the moment magnitude scale struck right near Bodrum, a popular town of tourism in Turkey, killing 2 and injuring hundreds. Mostly referenced as the 2017 Bodrum–Kos earthquake, this earthquake generated a tsunami which was one of the largest tsunamis in the Mediterranean Sea region.

The 1761 Lisbon earthquake and its subsequent tsunami occurred in the north Atlantic Ocean and south of the Iberian Peninsula. This violent shock which struck just after noon on 31 March 1761, was felt across many parts of Western Europe and in Morocco. Its direct effects were observed even far north in Scotland and Amsterdam, and to the south in the Canary Islands of Spain. The estimated surface-wave magnitude 8.5 event was the largest in the region, and the most significant earthquake in Europe since the Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755.

The northern part of the Ottoman Empire was struck by a major earthquake on 13 August 1822. It had an estimated magnitude of 7.0 Ms and a maximum felt intensity of IX (Destructive) on the European macroseismic scale (EMS). It may have triggered a tsunami, affecting nearby coasts. Damaging aftershocks continued for more than two years, with the most destructive being on 5 September 1822. The earthquake was felt over a large area including Rhodes, Cyprus and Gaza. The total death toll reported for this whole earthquake sequence ranges between 30,000 and 60,000, although 20,000 is regarded as a more likely number.

The 1872 Amik (Antakya) earthquake occurred on April 3 with an epicenter within the Amik Valley in the Ottoman Empire. Earthquake had an estimated magnitude of Mw  7.0–7.2 or Ms  7.2 and maximum MSK 64 rating of XI (Catastrophic). Turkey and Syria were devastated by this earthquake, and the region lost at least 1,800 residents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1940 Shakotan earthquake</span> Earthquake in Japan

The 1940 Shakotan earthquake occurred on August 2 at 00:08:22 JST with a moment magnitude (Mw ) of 7.5 and maximum JMA seismic intensity of Shindo 4. The shock had an epicenter off the coast of Hokkaido, Japan. Damage from the shock was comparatively light, but the accomanying tsunami was destructive. The tsunami caused 10 deaths and 24 injuries on Hokkaido, and destroyed homes and boats across the Sea of Japan. The highest tsunami waves were recorded at the coast of Russia while along the coast of Hokkaido, waves were about 2 m.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Grigoratos, Iason; Poggi, Valerio; Danciu, Laurentiu; Rojo, Graciela (14 February 2020). "An updated parametric catalog of historical earthquakes around the Dead Sea Transform Fault Zone". Journal of Seismology. 24 (4): 803–832. Bibcode:2020JSeis..24..803G. doi:10.1007/s10950-020-09904-9. S2CID   211102430.
  2. ↑ Freund R.; Garfunkel Z.; Zak I.; Goldberg M.; Weissbrod T.; Derin B.; Bender F.; Wellings F.E.; Girdler R.W. (1970). "The Shear along the Dead Sea Rift (and Discussion)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 267 (1181): 107–130. Bibcode:1970RSPTA.267..107F. doi:10.1098/rsta.1970.0027.
  3. 1 2 3 Ferry, Matthieu; Meghraoui, Mustapha; Karaki, Najib Abou; Al-Taj, Masdouq; Amoush, Hani; Al-Dhaisat, Salman; Barjous, Majdi (30 August 2007). "A 48-kyr-long slip rate history for the Jordan Valley segment of the Dead Sea Fault". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 260 (3–4): 394–406. Bibcode:2007E&PSL.260..394F. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.05.049.
  4. ↑ Marco S.; Hartal M.; Hazan N.; Leve L.; Stein M. (2003). "Archaeology, history, and geology of the A.D. 749 earthquake, Dead Sea transform" (PDF). Geology. 31 (8): 665–668. Bibcode:2003Geo....31..665M. doi:10.1130/G19516.1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-09.
  5. ↑ Wechsler, Neta; Rockwell, Thomas K.; Klinger, Yann; Štěpančíková, Petra; Kanari, Mor; Marco, Shmulik; Agnon, Amotz (2014). "A Paleoseismic Record of Earthquakes for the Dead-Sea Transform Fault Between the 1st and 7th centuries CE: Non-Periodic Behavior of a Plate Boundary Fault". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America . 104 (3). doi:10.1785/0120130304. S2CID   54590859.
  6. ↑ Migowski, Claudia; Agnon, Amotz; Bookman, Revital; Negendank, Jörg F.W; Stein, Mordechai (15 May 2004). "Recurrence pattern of Holocene earthquakes along the Dead Sea transform revealed by varve-counting and radiocarbon dating of lacustrine sediments" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 222 (1): 301–314. Bibcode:2004E&PSL.222..301M. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.02.015.
  7. 1 2 Zohar, Motti; Salamon, Amos; Rubin, Rehav (31 January 2017). "Earthquake damage history in Israel and its close surrounding - evaluation of spatial and temporal patterns". Tectonophysics . 696–697: 1–13. Bibcode:2017Tectp.696....1Z. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.12.015.
  8. ↑ Zohar, Motti; Salamon, Amos; Rubin, Rehav (16 April 2016). "Reappraised list of historical earthquakes that affected Israel and its close surroundings". Journal of Seismology. 20 (3): 971–985. Bibcode:2016JSeis..20..971Z. doi:10.1007/s10950-016-9575-7. S2CID   131324312.
  9. ↑ Guidoboni E.; Ferrari G.; Tarabusi G.; Sgattoni G.; Comastri A.; Mariotti D.; Ciuccarelli C.; Bianchi M.G.; Valensise G. (2019). "CFTI5Med, the new release of the catalogue of strong earthquakes in Italy and in the Mediterranean area". Scientific Data. 6 (1): 80. Bibcode:2019NatSD...6...80G. doi:10.1038/s41597-019-0091-9. PMC   6546750 . PMID   31160582. S2CID   174808667 . Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  10. ↑ Kallner-Amiran, D. H. (1950). "A Revised Earthquake-Catalogue of Palestine" (PDF). Israel Exploration Journal. 1 (4). Israel Exploration Society: 223–246. JSTOR   27924451.
  11. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972). "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K . Retrieved 22 June 2022.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  12. 1 2 Ma'oz, Moshe; Nusseibeh, Sari, eds. (2000). Jerusalem: Points of Friction—and Beyond. The Hague, London, Boston: Kluwer Law International. pp. 136–138. ISBN   90-411-8843-6.
  13. ↑ "The Earthquake of 1033 CE". archpark.org.il. The Jerusalem Archaeological Park. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  14. ↑ Alfonsi, Laura; Cinti, Francesca (2013). "The Kinematics of the 1033 A.D. Earthquake Revealed by the Damage at Hisham Palace (Jordan Valley, Dead Sea Transform Zone)". Seismological Research Letters. 84 (6): 997–1003. Bibcode:2013SeiRL..84..997A. doi:10.1785/0220130060.
  15. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Tsunami Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7 . Retrieved 23 June 2022.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ↑ Winer, Stuart (29 December 2020). "Major earthquake, killing hundreds, likely to hit Israel in coming years – study". The Times of Israel . Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  17. ↑ Lu, Yin; Wetzler, Nadav; Waldmann, Nicolas; Agnon, Amotz; Biasi, Glenn P.; Marco, Shmuel (2020). "A 220,000-year-long continuous large earthquake record on a slow-slipping plate boundary". Science Advances. 6 (48). Bibcode:2020SciA....6.4170L. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba4170. PMC   7695470 . PMID   33246948.
  18. ↑ "State comptroller: Israel unprepared for major quake, ignoring warnings". The Times of Israel . 18 July 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
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