Academic ranks in Germany

Last updated September 14, 2024

Academic ranks in Germany are the titles, relative importance and power of professors, researchers, and administrative personnel held in academia.

Overview

	Faculty	Teaching only	Part-time
Permanent positions	Universitätsprofessor (Pay grade: W3 or W2), Professor (W3)	Lehrprofessor	Honorarprofessor
	Professor (W2)	Lehrprofessor
	Professor (W1), Akademischer Oberrat, Akademischer Rat, Wissenschaftlicher / Akademischer Mitarbeiter (tenured)	Lehrkraft für besondere Aufgaben (LfbA) (tenured), (Ober-)Studienrat i.H. (im Hochschuldienst: School teacher in academic teaching function, for example for courses in Latin or Ancient Greek)
Temporary positions	Akademischer Rat auf Zeit, Akademischer Oberrat auf Zeit (AR/AOR a.Z.), Juniorprofessor (W1 non-tenured), Professor auf Zeit (W2 non-tenured)	Lehrkraft für besondere Aufgaben (LfbA) (non-tenured)	Lehrbeauftragter
	Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (graduate student)
	Wissenschaftliche Hilfskraft (undergraduate student)

Appointment grades

Universitätsprofessor (Pay grade: W3 or W2)
Professor (W3)
Professor (W2)
Hochschuldozent (W2, only in Baden-Württemberg ) – although paid like a professor appointed at level W2, lecturers in this position do not have a professor title; the term was formerly used in all states for senior lecturer positions with research and teaching responsibilities (C2, being phased out since 2002)
Juniorprofessor (not tenured, but increasingly with tenure track) (W1)
Juniordozent (not tenured) (W1, only in Baden-Württemberg)
Studienrat or Akademischer Rat/Oberrat/Direktor auf Lebenszeit (A13, A14, A15)
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (TVöD 13/14/15, TvL 13/14/15)
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter auf Zeit, Akademischer Rat auf Zeit (TVöD, TvLA13 a. Z.)
Akademischer Mitarbeiter auf Zeit (TVöD, only in Baden-Württemberg)
Wissenschaftliche Hilfskraft (TdL)
Studentische Hilfskraft (TdL)

Non-appointment grades

Privatdozent
Außerplanmäßiger Professor – conferred, in some German states, to a Privatdozent who has been in scientific service for several years, without formally being employed or paid.

Administrative ranks

Rektor, Präsident – rector or president, highest representative of the university or Polytechnic, elected
Prorektor, Konrektor, Vizepräsident – prorector or vice president, responsible for a certain field, elected
Kanzler – chancellor, administrative head, elected, longterm or even permanent position
Referent – either a senior adviser for a special strategic field or head of a strategically important administrative unit above director level, serves as an interface between the senior leadership of the university and other university units
Dekan – dean, head of a faculty, elected
Prodekan – vice dean, responsible for a certain field
Dekanatsrat – senior administrative officer carrying out tasks of an assistant dean
Institutsdirektor – head of department, elected

Faculty

In the 20th century, after their doctorate, German scholars who wished to go into academia usually worked towards a Habilitation by writing a second thesis, known as the Habilitationsschrift. This was often accomplished while employed as a Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter or Wissenschaftlicher Assistent ("scientific assistant", E13) or in a non-tenured position as Akademischer Rat ("assistant professor/lecturer", both 3+3 years teaching and research positions). Once the scholar pass their Habilitation, they could work as Privatdozent and are eligible for a call to a chair.

Since 2002 alternative paths can also lead to a full professorship. One can reach a professorship at a university by habilitation, a successful evaluation as a junior professorship (after 5 years), a tenure track period (6 years) or equivalent performance. In engineering this is often attained through expert knowledge in the industry, and in natural science often by the number and quality of publications. While universities and Fachhochschulen ("Universities of Applied Sciences") do not have the same legal status, there are no formal differences in academic ranks except a higher teaching load in the Fachhochschulen as they have no research mandate. Since a new salary scheme was introduced in 2005, both types of universities can appoint W2 as well as W3 professors. In general, a professor at a Fachhochschule has not gone through the process of habilitation or junior professorship; they also cannot supervise dissertations. Instead, a doctorate and at least three years of work experience in research and development outside academia are required. Usually, a professor at a university of applied science is more focused on teaching while a professor at a traditional university is more focused on research.

In Germany it has been debated whether Professor is a title that one may retain for life once it has been conferred (similar to the doctorate), or whether it is linked to an office and ceases to belong to the holder once the professor quits or retires (except in the usual case of becoming Professor emeritus). The latter view has won the day—although in many German states, there is a minimum requirement of five years of service before "Professor" may be kept as a title—and is by now both the law and majority opinion.

Main positions

Professor (Prof.): Since about 2002 the standard title for full professors at universities in Germany.
Professor ordinarius (ordentlicher Professor, o. Prof., Univ. Prof.): professor with chair, representing the branch of science in question. In Germany, it was common to call these positions in colloquial use "C4" professorships, due to the name of the respective entry in the official salary table for Beamte (civil servant). (Following recent reforms of the salary system at universities,^[1] you might now find the denomination "W3 professor.") Today in most German federal states this title is obsolete for restaffing. Since 2002 all full professors at universities and applied universities are called "professor".
Professor extraordinarius ("extraordinary professor", außerordentlicher Professor, ao. Prof.): professor without chair, often in a side-area, or being associated with a professor with a chair. In many states of Germany this is a special title, which gives full rights as for a full professor (such as supervision of PhD and habilitation, participation in all professorial meetings, right for a special opinion for a dissertation in its field of specialization etc. etc.). These positions are tenured and typically paid according to the W2 salary scale. In Prussia before the First World War, the average salary of full professors ("Ordinarius") was double that of associate professors and up to nine times that of professors at the beginning of their careers.^[2]
Professor emeritus (Prof. em.): just like in North America (see above); used both for the ordinarius and for the extraordinarius, although strictly speaking only the former is entitled to be addressed in this way. Although retired and being paid a pension instead of a salary, a Prof. em. may still teach, give exams and often still have an office.
Junior Professor (Jun.-Prof.): this position started in 2002 in Germany, this is a 6-year time-limited professorship for inexperienced young scholars without Habilitation . It is supposed to rejuvenate those who are eventually supposed to become professors ordinarius in other institutions. The concept is intensely debated due to a lack of experience with this new approach. The main criticism is that Juniorprofessors are expected to apply for professorships at other universities during the latter part of the six-year period, as their universities should not offer tenure themselves (unlike in the tenure track schemes used, e.g., in the USA). The number of academics appointed as 'junior professors' in Germany has risen from ca. 900 in 2008^[3] to ca. 1600 in 2014.^[4] Increasingly, the junior professorship is replaced by the tenure track model similar to that in the US, where a scholar without habilitation is hired and will get tenure (W2 or W3) after successful evaluation.

Other positions

Honorarprofessor (Hon.-Prof.): equivalent to the Dutch Extraordinary Professor, non-salaried. An honorary title (not related to any sort of honorarium) conferred upon the person by a university for particular merits, often earned outside university or through long-term commitments (e.g., continued teaching) at the institution that confers the title. A Hon.-Prof. is obligated to lecture on a small scale. However, this is sometimes circumvented by title holders, especially since the title became popular among executives.
außerplanmäßiger Professor (apl. Prof. or Prof.): either a tenured university lecturer or a former Privatdozent to whom the title is awarded after a time during which she or he has done excellent research.^[5] The word außerplanmäßig (supernumerary) literally means "outside of the plan" and denotes that no pay is associated with the position (apl. Prof. might be employed as researchers with the university, however, but they might also be employed outside of the university system). As a member of the faculty they are obligated to lecture and conduct examinations and have the right to supervise doctoral theses.^[6]
Privatdozent (Priv.-Doz. or PD):a member of a faculty who has passed the Habilitation ; this title may also be awarded to a former Juniorprofessor and - in terms of academic achievement - is comparable to that of Associate Professor (North America), Senior Lecturer (United Kingdom), or maître de conférences (France).^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] A Privatdozent is obligated to lecture and conduct examinations (often without pay) in order to keep the title and is allowed to supervise doctoral theses.
Lehrbeauftragter a paid part-time (for example 2 hrs per week in a semester) teaching position for scientists in general with non university position who often hold a doctorate; Lehrbeauftragter is sometimes comparable with an adjunct assistant professor or an adjunct associate professor (US). It is not considered a professor position in Germany.
Vertretungsprofessor: is an interim professor who officially represents a vacant chair or professorship for a limited amount of time, mostly 1 or 2 semesters. Very often a completed Habilitation is required. It is comparable with visiting associate professor (US). Some academics use this job as a changeover position before getting this particular job in a tenured way or before getting a tenured professorship at another institution.
Gastprofessor: A visiting scholar. If they lecture they are sometimes also called a visiting professor. Further, a visiting scholar can also work as a Vertretungsprofessor.
Seniorprofessor (distinguished senior professorship): A special arrangement where a professor close to retirement is freed from the requirement to lecture and does only research. Their salary is already paid from the pension fund, as if they retired early, and part of their previous regular salary is often used to hire a young successor to gradually take over the Seniorprofessor's work.

Other professors

Some other uses of the title professor:

Employment title outside the universities: In Germany, some civil servants like directors of certain public museums or research-oriented public institutions bear an employment title which contains the word 'Professor'. Examples: "Präsident und Professor des Bundesinstituts für Risikobewertung" ("President and Professor of the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment"), "Präsident und Professor der Stiftung Deutsches Historisches Museum" ("President and Professor of the Foundation German Historic Museum").^[12]
Gymnasialprofessor (Professor at Gymnasium): In some German states, senior teachers at Gymnasium, which is a type of secondary school, were also designated Professor in the late 19th and early 20th century. In Austria, tenured teachers at Gymnasium are still called Professor.

In other countries

Similar or identical systems as in Germany (where a Habilitation is required) are in place, e.g., in Austria, the German-speaking part of Switzerland (however in Switzerland the term is used as a more general honorary title in the Universities of Applied Sciences, the Fachhochschulen), as well as in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia.

In Poland, professor is an academic degree required to obtain the position of full (ordinary) professor. An extraordinary professorship is lower ranked, and does not require the professor title.

In some countries using the German-style academic system (e.g. Austria, Finland, Sweden), Professor is also an honorific title that can be bestowed upon an artist, scholar, etc., by the President or by the government, completely independent of any actual academic post or assignment.

Related Research Articles

Privatdozent or Privatdozentin, abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz., is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualifications that denote an ability and permission to teach a designated subject at the highest level. To be granted the title Priv.-Doz. by a university, a recipient has to fulfill the criteria set by the university which usually require excellence in research, teaching, and further education. In its current usage, the title indicates that the holder has completed their habilitation and is therefore granted permission to teach and examine students independently without having a full professorship (chair). With respect to the level of academic achievement, the title of Privatdozent is comparable to that of Associate Professor, Senior Lecturer, or maître de conférences détenteur de l'habilitation à diriger des recherches (HDR) (France).

Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. The degree, sometimes abbreviated Dr. habil., Dr hab., or D.Sc., is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries. In German-speaking countries it allows the degree holder to bear the title PD. The degree conferral is usually accompanied by a public oral defence event with one or more opponents. Habilitation is usually awarded 5–15 years after a PhD degree or its equivalent. Achieving this academic degree does not automatically give the scientist a paid position, though many people who apply for the degree already have steady university employment.

Lecturer is an academic rank within many universities, though the meaning of the term varies somewhat from country to country. It generally denotes an academic expert who is hired to teach on a full- or part-time basis. They may also conduct research.

The title of docent is conferred by some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks at or below the full professor rank, similar to a British readership, a French maître de conférences (MCF), and equal to or above the title of assistant professor. In Southeast European countries, it is the first position that people achieve once they enter the University, and after the completion of their PhD degree.

The German civil servants called Beamte have a privileged legal status compared to other German public employees, who are generally subject to the same laws and regulations as employees in the private sector. For example, the state can only fire Beamte if they commit a felony.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walther Gerlach</span> German physicist (1889–1979)

Walther Gerlach was a German physicist who co-discovered, through laboratory experiment, spin quantization in a magnetic field, the Stern–Gerlach effect. The experiment was conceived by Otto Stern in 1921 and successfully conducted first by Gerlach in early 1922.

The title of reader in the United Kingdom and some universities in the Commonwealth of Nations, for example India, Australia and New Zealand, denotes an appointment for a senior academic with a distinguished international reputation in research or scholarship.

Tenure is a category of academic appointment existing in some countries. A tenured post is an indefinite academic appointment that can be terminated only for cause or under extraordinary circumstances, such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Tenure is a means of defending the principle of academic freedom, which holds that it is beneficial for society in the long run if scholars are free to hold and examine a variety of views.

The following summarizes basic academic ranks in the French higher education system. Most academic institutions are state-run and most academics with permanent positions are civil servants, and thus are tenured.

A research fellow is an academic research position at a university or a similar research institution, usually for academic staff or faculty members. A research fellow may act either as an independent investigator or under the supervision of a principal investigator.

Professors in the United States commonly occupy any of several positions of teaching and research within a college or university. In the U.S., the word "professor" is often used to refer to anyone who teaches at a college of university level at any academic rank. This usage differs from the predominant usage of the word professor in other countries, where the unqualified word "professor" only refers to "full professors". Other tenure-track faculty positions include assistant professor and associate professor (mid-level). Other teaching-focused positions that use the term "professor" include Clinical Professor, Professor of Practice, and Teaching Professor. Most faculty with titles of "Lecturer" and "Instructor" in the U.S. are not eligible for tenure, though they are still often referred to as "professors" in a general sense and as a courtesy form of address. Non-tenure-track positions may be full or part time, although the qualifier "adjunct" always denotes part-time.

Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes". Professors are usually experts in their field and teachers of the highest rank.

Academic ranks in the United States are the titles, relative importance and power of professors, researchers, and administrative personnel held in academia.

Academic ranks in Hungary are the titles, relative importance and power of professors, researchers, and administrative personnel held in academia.

Academic ranks in the Netherlands are the titles, relative importance and power of professors, researchers, and administrative personnel held in academia.

Wissenschaftlicher Assistent, often shortened to Assistent, literally "scientific assistant", is an academic position at German universities for researchers with doctoral degrees and additional academic qualifications, who are typically employed to conduct research to qualify themselves for the Habilitation and thus a full professorship.

Udo J. Hebel is a German professor of American studies. He has been president of the University of Regensburg since 1 April 2013. He was selected as one of the ten best university rectors in Germany by the German Association of University Professors and Lecturers.

An adjunct professor is a type of academic appointment in higher education who does not work at the establishment full-time. The terms of this appointment and the job security of the tenure vary in different parts of the world, but the term is generally agreed to mean a bona-fide part-time faculty member in an adjunct position at an institution of higher education.

The junior professorship is an academic rank at universities and research institutions in Germany. In 2002, this position was introduced with the fifth novella of the Framework Act for Higher Education to enable young scientists and academics with an outstanding doctorate to do independent research and to teach at universities before having completed their habilitation. Furthermore, this position is meant to provide the qualification for a lifetime professorship.

References

↑ "Was ist die W-Besoldung?". www.w-besoldung.net. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
↑ Walter Rüegg (2011). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 4. Cambridge U.P. p. 185. ISBN 9781139494250.
↑ "Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.4: Personal an Hochschulen (2008)" (PDF). www.destatis.de. Statistisches Bundesamt. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
↑ "Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.4 : Personal an Hochschulen (2014)" (PDF). www.destatis.de. Statistisches Bundesamt. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
↑ Horstkotte, Hermann (2008-02-25). "Universitäre Hackordnung: Wer ist hier der Prof?". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2019-05-09.
↑ Horstkotte, Hermann (2013-03-20). "Promotion: Was müssen Doktorväter wirklich können?". Die Zeit (in German). ISSN 0044-2070 . Retrieved 2019-05-09.
↑ Vargas, Nikoletta; Romanos, Georgios E. (June 2022). "Dental Academic Degrees in Germany Compared to the USA". Dentistry Journal. 10 (6): 98. doi: 10.3390/dj10060098 . ISSN 2304-6767. PMC 9221956 . PMID 35735640.
↑ French Ministry of Higher Education and Research (10 February 2011) (10 February 2011). "Comparaison des carrières des enseignants-chercheurs de pays étrangers" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ "Professorship in Austria". www.academics.com. 2023-08-08. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
↑ "dict.cc dictionary :: Privatdozent :: German-English translation". www.dict.cc. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
↑ Alawi, Seyed Arash; Luketina, Rosalia; Krezdorn, Nicco; Busch, Lukas Fabian; Limbourg, Anne; Branski, Ludwik; Vogt, Peter M.; Jokuszies, Andreas (2019-09-01). "How to become a medical professor – a comparative analysis of academic requirements in Germany and the United States". Innovative Surgical Sciences. 4 (3): 108–115. doi:10.1515/iss-2019-0011. ISSN 2364-7485. PMC 6817728 . PMID 31709302.
↑ Bundesbesoldungsordnung B Archived January 16, 2014, at the Wayback Machine

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[w-besoldung.net-1] "Was ist die W-Besoldung?". www.w-besoldung.net. Retrieved 2013-08-16.

[2] Walter Rüegg (2011). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 4. Cambridge U.P. p. 185. ISBN 9781139494250.

[3] "Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.4: Personal an Hochschulen (2008)" (PDF). www.destatis.de. Statistisches Bundesamt. Retrieved 24 May 2016.

[4] "Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.4 : Personal an Hochschulen (2014)" (PDF). www.destatis.de. Statistisches Bundesamt. Retrieved 24 May 2016.

[5] Horstkotte, Hermann (2008-02-25). "Universitäre Hackordnung: Wer ist hier der Prof?". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2019-05-09.

[6] Horstkotte, Hermann (2013-03-20). "Promotion: Was müssen Doktorväter wirklich können?". Die Zeit (in German). ISSN 0044-2070 . Retrieved 2019-05-09.

[7] Vargas, Nikoletta; Romanos, Georgios E. (June 2022). "Dental Academic Degrees in Germany Compared to the USA". Dentistry Journal. 10 (6): 98. doi: 10.3390/dj10060098 . ISSN 2304-6767. PMC 9221956 . PMID 35735640.

[8] French Ministry of Higher Education and Research (10 February 2011) (10 February 2011). "Comparaison des carrières des enseignants-chercheurs de pays étrangers" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[9] "Professorship in Austria". www.academics.com. 2023-08-08. Retrieved 2023-08-21.

[10] "dict.cc dictionary :: Privatdozent :: German-English translation". www.dict.cc. Retrieved 2023-08-21.

[11] Alawi, Seyed Arash; Luketina, Rosalia; Krezdorn, Nicco; Busch, Lukas Fabian; Limbourg, Anne; Branski, Ludwik; Vogt, Peter M.; Jokuszies, Andreas (2019-09-01). "How to become a medical professor – a comparative analysis of academic requirements in Germany and the United States". Innovative Surgical Sciences. 4 (3): 108–115. doi:10.1515/iss-2019-0011. ISSN 2364-7485. PMC 6817728 . PMID 31709302.

[12] Bundesbesoldungsordnung B Archived January 16, 2014, at the Wayback Machine

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v t e Academic ranks overview
Overview	Faculty Ranks and titles Professorship Tenure track
North American system	Tenure track Assistant professor Associate professor Professor (full) Endowed Chair Non-tenure track Adjunct professor Instructor Lecturer
Commonwealth system	Research and teaching track Associate lecturer Lecturer Senior lecturer Reader or associate professor Professor Research track Research assistant Research fellow Senior research fellow Professor or research professor
Junior positions	Research assistant Research associate Research fellow Postdoctoral researcher
Other positions	Chancellor Distinguished professor Agrégation Docent Habilitation Head of college Privatdozent Professor of practice Schoolmaster Head teacher Vice-principal Teaching assistant Teaching fellow