A USAF F-16C aggressor aircraft. The camouflage scheme emulates Soviet markings.
An aggressor squadron or adversary squadron (in the US Navy and USMC) is a squadron that is trained to act as an opposing force in military wargames. Aggressor squadrons use enemy tactics, techniques, and procedures to give a realistic simulation of air combat (as opposed to training against one's own forces). Since it is impractical to use actual enemy aircraft and equipment, surrogate aircraft are used to emulate potential adversaries.
In the Second World War, the antagonists captured each other's aircraft and introduced them into a modest DACT role. The Germans created a unit known as "Touring Zirkus Rosarius" with captured P-51s, P-47s etc. that visited fighter bases and even let the senior pilots fly the adversary aircraft themselves. The RAF created No. 1426 Flight RAF with Luftwaffe captured fighters (Bf 109s and Fw 190s) that were fully tested and then taken to USAAF and RAF bases for familiarization training.
US aggressor squadrons fly small and low-wing loaded fighters that are used to represent those of the potential adversaries. Originally DouglasA-4s (US Navy) and Northrop F-5s (US Navy, Marines, and Air Force) were flown along with T-38 Talons that were immediately available and served as placeholders until new F-5E/F Tiger II aircraft were introduced.
These were eventually supplemented by early-model F/A-18As (US Navy), specially built F-16Ns (for the US Navy), and F-16A models (for the Air Force). At the end of 2005, the USAF started using the larger and faster F-15 Eagle as an aggressor aircraft alongside the F-16 at Nellis Air Force Base. However, the USAF began phasing out its F-15 aggressors towards the end of 2014. With the deactivation of the 65th Aggressor Squadron, the F-16C became the only dedicated aggressor type at Nellis AFB until 2022, when the 65th was reactivated with the F-35A Lightning II to better simulate stealth fighter threats.
Foreign-made aircraft
Foreign aircraft have been used as aggressors in the United States, most notably the Israeli Kfir fighter, designated F-21 in its use as an adversary asset. Actual Soviet MiG-17s, MiG-21s, and MiG-23s have also been flown by the US Air Force as Aggressors over the Nellis ranges, under the Constant Peg[1] program. The US Army operates eleven Soviet or Russian aircraft[2] for adversary training, including Mi-24s, Mi-8s, Mi-2s, and An-2s.
German MiG-29 aircraft were regular visitors to the United States before being sold to Poland and participated in valuable DACT training at Nellis AFB as well as NAS Key West in addition to providing details to overseas locations or hosting US squadrons in Germany. One MiG-29 was loaned to the US for evaluation providing insight in the threat technology.
The Navy and Marine Corps briefly operated 2 squadrons of F-21 Kfir adversaries at NAS Oceana (VF-43) and Marine Corps Air Station Yuma (VMFT-401). This started in 1985 up through the 1990's when the planes were taken out of aggressor service.[3]
Aggressor performances
Three F-5E Tiger II from the 527th Tactical Fighter Training Aggressor Squadron.
While aircraft used for the aggressor role are usually older jet fighters, this has not always been the case. During the mid-1980s, the US Navy determined that the A-4s and F-5s flown at Top Gun were not adequate in simulating the air-to-air capabilities of the newest Soviet fighters such as the MiG-29 and Su-27. At this point, the U.S. Navy held a competition for an adversary platform that could viably represent fourth-generation fighter threats embodied by the MiG-29, Su-27 and the Mirage 2000.
The competing airframes were the General Dynamics F-16C Falcon and the Northrop F-20 Tigershark. According to George Hall's "Top Gun," many instructors at the Navy Fighter Weapons School preferred that the Navy procure the F-20. One reason given was the similarity to the F-5E Tiger aircraft already used by Top Gun and the four active duty adversary squadrons (VF-43, VF-45, VF-126, and VFA-127). However, General Dynamics priced the Falcon for the Navy at below cost.
The F-16C won the competition and the F-20 failed to win another order. This, compounded with other lost contracts, led to the demise of the F-20 program and the elimination of one more competitor for the F-16 in the worldwide fighter market. The F-16C as procured by the Navy was equipped with the lighter AN/APG-63 radar set as flown in the F-16A and had a titanium wing spar as in other F-16s. It was not equipped with the M61 Vulcan gun system and had twin lens pods on both sides of the intake to enlarge the relatively small radar cross section of the F-16.
Any equipment not necessary for visual-range aerial combat was removed, enhancing their agility and dog-fighting abilities. These F-16s were designated F-16N, and twenty-two single seat aircraft and four twin seat, designated the TF-16N, were built for the US Navy and flown at its famous "TOPGUN" Navy Fighter Weapons School starting in 1987. They were also flown by VF-43, VF-45 and VF-126, which were still active duty Adversary squadrons at the time.
Despite the airframe being strengthened to cope with the continuous high-G loads associated with air combat maneuvering, cracks were detected on the wings after only a few years of operation, leading to grounding of the Navy F-16 fleet by 1992 and complete retirement of the F-16N by 1994.[4] In 2002, the Navy began to receive fourteen F-16A and F-16B models from AMARC at Davis-Monthan AFB that were brand new aircraft originally intended for Pakistan, but had been embargoed. All 14 are operated by NSAWC for use by TOPGUN in addition to the F/A-18A aircraft already in operation at NAS Fallon.
Aggressor aircraft in the United States are typically painted in colorful camouflage schemes, matching the colors of many Soviet aircraft and contrasting with the gray colors used in most operational US combat aircraft. Camouflage schemes that consist of many shades of blue (similar to those used in Sukhoi fighters) or of green and mostly-light brown (similar to the colors used in many Middle Eastern countries' combat aircraft) are most common.
Squadrons
A US Navy Vought EA-7L Corsair II aircraft with a Soviet star and red numbers.
With the exception of the NSAWC aircraft, all the US Navy and US Marine Corps adversary squadrons are Reserve Component units and aircraft belonging to the Navy Reserve and the Marine Corps Reserve.
The USAF also operated Aggressor squadrons in the UK and in the Philippines. The 527 AS was a USAFE unit that first operated out of the former RAF Alconbury near Cambridge, England, then later from the former RAF Bentwaters near Ipswich. The 527th initially flew F-5s, then later switched to F-16s. They trained over the North Sea and in Germany, Spain and Italy. The PACAF counterpart, the 26th Training Aggressor Squadron, operated F-5s out of the former Clark Air Base near Angeles City, Philippines.
Since 2005, the Canadian Forces has employed civilian contractor Top Aces to provide aggressor services utilising modernised Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jets, Lear 35s, and Douglas A-4 Skyhawks. These aircraft are flown by highly experienced retired and current RCAF pilots, based out of CFB Cold Lake, CFB Bagotville, Victoria, BC, and Halifax, NS.
Upgraded A-4N Skyhawks owned by Canadian defence contractor Top Aces.
414 Squadron operated the CF-100, CT-133, CC-117 and EF-101 in the electronic warfare (EW) adversary role from CFB North Bay, Ontario, until 2002. The squadron re-formed in 2009, again in the EW adversary role, based in Ottawa, Ontario, flying aboard contracted Top Aces aircraft. They provide adversary training to the RCAF and RCN in both jamming and threat replication. The squadron has previously supported Canadian Army air defense units, but with the retirement of the ADATS platform this role was discontinued.
Fleet support squadrons VU-32 and VU-33 sometimes filled an adversary role, using their CT-133s to simulate sea-skimming missiles, such as the Exocet, for the Canadian Forces Maritime Command's vessels.
China
The Flight Test and Training Centre (FTTC) is located at Cangzhou.[5] FTTC is organized into 3 regiments which simulate enemy aircraft.
The 1st FTTC Regiment operates J-10A/AS and the JL-9.
The 2nd FTTC Regiment operates J-7E, J-8D/F, and JL-9.
In 2011, the 3rd Regiment of the FTTC traveled to Pakistan to exercise with the Pakistani Air Force.[citation needed]
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom maintained two units to undertake the aggressor role, both of which operated the BAE Hawk, No. 100 Squadron RAF[6] and 736 Naval Air Squadron[7] It was announced in July 2021 that apart from the Red Arrows, all other Hawk T1 aircraft in the British military would be retired and these two squadrons disbanded on 31 March 2022.[8] On 28 March 2022, the RAF announced that a six-year contract to provide these services, now known as the Interim Red Air Aggressor Training Service (IRAATS) was awarded to Draken Europe using a fleet of Aero L-159 ALCA Honey Badgers and Dassault Falcon 20s.[9]
The Soviet Air Forces began a program known as the 1521st Center for Combat Employment, located in Mary, Turkmen SSR, in 1970.[10] The program was prompted by the poor performance of Soviet-supplied aircraft in the Middle East and by the equivalent American programmes. Before that the Air Force units used some of its own planes in MV roles, the MV standing for Modyeliruyemyiy Vrag which translates as “simulated enemy”.
The unit was also known as the 1521st Aviation Base, and consisted of 3 squadrons:[citation needed]
Two squadrons took “aggressor” roles. Initially they operated the MiG-21bis and the MiG-23MLD. Later both were equipped with MiG-29, painted to make them look like the F-15 Eagle.
A third squadron operated drones for target practice for the visiting Soviet Air Force units.
The current status of 1521st is not known. It was taken over by Turkmenistan in 1992. It is supposed to have been disbanded after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
NATO and others
Reunified Germany inherited 24 MiG-29s from East German Air Force. They formed the JG73 "Steinhoff" squadron, that was partially used as Aggressor squadron. NATO air forces compared the Luftwaffe's Fulcrums with western types during NATO training exercises. Many western pilots were able to train combat tactics against a real Russian fighter flown by highly experienced pilots and to execute air-air-combats against 'the real thing'.[11]
Between 1985 and the mid-nineties Norwegian Air Force 336th squadron was used in the aggressor role on numerous exercises and DACT courses.
In Italy since 2015 the Typhoon squadrons started cooperating with the 212° Gruppo (Squadron) that is responsible for Lead-In Fighter Training course and employs their T-346A Master advanced jet trainers in the Aggressors role. Italian Air Force Alenia Aermacchi T-346As belonging to the 61° Stormo deployed to Tactical Leadership Programme in the Aggressors role.
NATO integrated opposing force (IOPFOR) Program will mean privately owned lightweight fighters could provide an aggressor training service for NATO.
Egypt has recently established an Aggressor squadron Called "95 Aggressor Squadron" Operating F-16s Block 52s that were added lately.
The Israeli Air Force's aggressor squadron is 115 Squadron, also known as the Flying Dragon or Red Squadron. It is the sole IAF squadron to operate fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters and also ground-based assets. The unit also offers its services to other nations.
New Zealand
TA-4K Kahu Skyhawk, NZ6254 operated by both 75 and 2 Squadrons RNZAF
Some aggressor missions do not require dogfighting, but instead involve flying relatively simple profiles to test the target acquisition and tracking capabilities of radars, missiles and aircraft. Some of these missions had been outsourced on short term or one-time contracts to private companies in the late 20th century. In the early 2000s, these programs began steadily evolving to include longer contracts and more advanced mission capabilities. Civilian contractors such as ATAC, Top Aces, and Draken International are now flying advanced radar equipped aircraft in complex training missions including international large force exercises such as Red Flag, Maple Flag, Frisian Flag, and Tiger Meet. They utilize disarmed ex-military jets or small business jets such as the Lear 35, L-39, Alpha Jet, Hawker Hunter, Saab J35 Draken, BD-5J, IAI Kfir, A-4 Skyhawk, MiG-21, Mirage F1 and even the F-16 to simulate potential enemy aircraft and tactics. By outsourcing these missions, customer governments can save costs, save valuable airframe life on combat fleets, and benefit from the flexibility of civilian operations. They also get the benefit of continuing to draw on the expertise of the contracted pilots, most of whom are highly experienced weapons school graduates, being either retired or still serving officers concurrently flying in the Reserve, Air National Guard or equivalent.
Nellis Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation in southern Nevada. Nellis hosts air combat exercises such as Exercise Red Flag and close air support exercises such as Green Flag-West flown in "Military Operations Area (MOA) airspace", associated with the nearby Nevada Test and Training Range (NTTR). The base also has the Combined Air and Space Operations Center-Nellis.
The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft designed and produced by the American aerospace manufacturer Douglas Aircraft Company, and later, McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the United States Navy's pre-1962 designation system.
The VFA-201, Strike Fighter Squadron was an aviation unit of the United States Naval Reserve based at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas (USA). It was established in 1970 as part of Reserve Carrier Air Wing 20 (CVWR-20) and deactivated in 2007. During its service VFA-201 could be identified by the tail code "AF" and nose numbers (MODEX) in the "100" series, typically 100 to 113. The squadron's nickname was the Hunters.
Exercise Red Flag is a two-week advanced aerial combat training exercise held several times a year by the United States Air Force (USAF). It aims to offer realistic air-combat training for military pilots and other flight crew members from the United States and allied countries.
Tonopah Test Range Airport, at the Tonopah Test Range is 27 NM southeast of Tonopah, Nevada, and 140 mi (230 km) northwest of Las Vegas, Nevada. It is a major airfield with a 12,000 ft × 150 ft runway, instrument approach facilities, and nighttime illumination. The facility has over fifty hangars and an extensive support infrastructure.
The 65th Aggressor Squadron is a United States Air Force unit currently operating the F-35A Lightning II. It is assigned to the 57th Operations Group at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.
The 414th Combat Training Squadron is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the 57th Wing, 57th Operations Group at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. The 414th is a non-flying organization charged with hosting Red Flag exercises, Air Combat Command's largest Large Force Exercise (LFE).
The 527th Space Aggressor Squadron is a United States Space Force unit assigned to the Space Training and Readiness Command. The unit traces its lineage to the 312th Bombardment Squadron (Light) constituted in 1942. It presents realistic adversary threats to US and allied military forces to improve their training for space-associated operations. It is stationed at Schriever Space Force Base, Colorado. Its present form dates from its activation as part of the United States Air Force in 2000. That year it was activated as part of the Space Warfare Centre, but it was then transferred to the 57th Adversary Tactics Group in 2006. The mission was augmented with the activation of a United States Air Force Reserve associate unit, the 26th Space Aggressor Squadron, on 1 October 2003. With the formation of the Space Force in 2019, the squadron was part of the second wave of transfers and reorganizations which took place in mid-2020. It was realigned under Space Delta 11 upon that organizations activation in 2021.
Fighter Squadron 124 or VF-124Gunfighters was a fleet replacement squadron (FRS) of the United States Navy. Originally established on 16 August 1948 as VF-53, it was redesignated VF-124 at NAS Moffett Field on 11 April 1958 due to a need for an increased number of flight training squadrons, itself necessary because of introduction of swept wing fighters into Navy service. In 1961, the squadron relocated to NAS Miramar, California, which would become the U.S. Pacific Fleet's Master Jet Base for fighter aircraft.
VF-142 Ghostriders was a US Navy fighter squadron established on 24 August 1948 as VF-193, it was redesignated VF-142 on 15 October 1963, and disestablished on 30 April 1995.
Dissimilar air combat training (DACT) was introduced as a formal part of US air combat training after disappointing aerial combat exchange rates in the Vietnam War.
The Ault Report, or more formally, the Air-to-Air Missile System Capability Review, was a sweeping study of United States Navy air-to-air missile performance during the period of 1965 to 1968, conducted by Navy Captain Frank Ault. The study was initiated at the behest of Admiral Tom Moorer, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), who had taken office in August 1967. He was disturbed by the dismal performance of Navy air-to-air missiles in engagements with North Vietnamese fighter jets. Admiral Moorer tasked the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIRSYSCOM) to conduct "an in-depth examination of the entire process by which Air-to-Air missile systems are acquired and employed" and further directed that Ault be placed in charge of the effort.
Fighter Squadron Composite 111 (VFC-111), also known as the "Sun Downers", is a United States Navy Reserve adversary squadron based at Naval Air Station Key West, Florida. Currently, it operates Northrop F-5N/F Tiger-IIs, of which most are single-seater F-5Ns and one twin-seater F-5F, the "FrankenTiger".
The 57th Wing is an operational unit of the United States Air Force (USAF) Warfare Center, stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.
The 178th Wing is a unit of the Ohio Air National Guard, stationed at the Springfield-Beckley Municipal Airport ANG complex, Springfield, Ohio. If activated to federal service, the wing is gained by the United States Air Force Air Combat Command (ACC), with elements of the wing gained by the Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Agency (AFISRA).
The 162nd Attack Squadron is a unit of the Ohio Air National Guard 178th Wing located at Springfield Air National Guard Base, Springfield, Ohio. The 162nd is equipped with the General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper UAV.
The 57th Operations Group is the operational component of the 57th Wing, assigned to the United States Air Force's Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.
The 4477th Test and Evaluation Squadron was a squadron in the United States Air Force under the claimancy of the Tactical Air Command (TAC). It is currently inactive. The product of Project Constant Peg, the unit was created to expose the tactical air forces to the flight characteristics of fighter aircraft used by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The declassified history of the squadron shows that it operated MiG-17s, MiG-21s and MiG-23s between 1977 and 1988, but it was not formally disbanded until July 1990.
Draken International, LLC is an American provider of tactical fighter aircraft for contract air services including military and defense industry customers. The firm is based at the Lakeland Linder International Airport in Lakeland, Florida and also has operating bases at Kinston Regional Jetport and Kelly Field in San Antonio, Texas.
Davies, Steve (2008) Red Eagles: America's Secret MiGs Osprey Publishing ISBN978-1-84603-378-0
Drendel, Lou (revised 1984) ...And Kill MiGs, Air to Air Combat From Vietnam to the Gulf War - Aircraft Specials series, Squadron/Signal Publications. ISBN0-89747-381-7
Hall, George (1986). Top Gun - The Navy's Fighter Weapons School, Presidio Press. ISBN0-87938-520-0
Parsons, Dave and Nelson, Derek (1993) Bandits - Pictorial History of American Adversarial Aircraft, Motorbooks International. ISBN0-87938-623-1
Wilcox, Robert (2005-reissue)Scream of Eagles, Pocketstar. ISBN0-7434-9724-4
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