Ain Dara (archaeological site)

Last updated

Ain Dara temple
Ain Dara Alp1.jpg
The remains of the Ain Dara temple before 2018
Syria adm location map.svg
Archaeological site icon (red).svg
Shown within Syria
Location Ain Dara village, Afrin, Syria
Coordinates 36°27′33.7″N36°51′7.5″E / 36.459361°N 36.852083°E / 36.459361; 36.852083
TypeTemple
Part ofAcropolis
Length30 m (98 ft)
Width20 m (66 ft)
Area600 m2 (6,500 sq ft)
History
Materialstone
Foundedc. 1300 BC to 740 BC
Periods Iron Age
Cultures Aramean
Site notes
Excavation dates1980–1985
Conditionruins
Public accessYes

The Ain Dara temple is a destroyed Iron Age Syro-Hittite temple noted for its similarities to Solomon's Temple, also known as the "First Temple in Jerusalem", as described in the Hebrew Bible. [1] [2] [3] It is located near the village of Ain Dara, in Afrin District, Syria.

Contents

According to the excavator, Ali Abu Assaf, it existed from 1300 BC until 740 BC and remained almost unchanged during the construction of Solomon's Temple (1000–900 BC) as it had been before [4] so it predates the First Temple. [5] The temples of Emar, Mumbaqat, and Ebla (Temple D) are also comparable, as is the nearby 8th century BCE temple at Tell Tayinat. [3] The surviving sculptures depict lions and sphinxes, which are comparable to the cherubim of the First Temple.

Massive footprints were carved into the floor; whether of giants, humans, or animals is debatable. [4] Also left to speculation is to whom the temple is dedicated. Ain Dara may have been devoted to Inanna, the female Mesopotamian deity of fertility and civilisation, [6] or to the Canaanite version of Ishtar, ʿAṯtart. [7] It also might have been dedicated to the male storm deity Hadad, or it might have been an oracle on a road known as the international coastal highway between the Syrian Desert and Mediterranean Sea. [8]

According to the Assad government, the temple was significantly damaged by Turkish jets during the Turkish military operation in Afrin in late January 2018. [9] Reports indicate that at least 60% percent of the structure was reduced to rubble. [10] The entire front facade of the temple has been destroyed in photos and video released online. The site's emblematic basalt lion was stolen in December 2019 by members of the Hamza Division, which is part of the Syrian National Army. [11]

Geography

Ain Dara temple is located in north Syria, 67 kilometres (42 mi) northwest of Aleppo near the Syro-Turkish border. It was built on a terrace known as the "acropolis of the tell". The tell itself is precipitous-faced and overlooks the Afrin Valley. The area is divided in two parts, the main tell that is 25 m (82 ft) above the surrounding plain, and the lower acropolis which covers an area of 25 ha (60 acres). [3] [4] [12] [ dubious – discuss ]

Just east of the temple site is the modern-day village of Ain Dara.

History of excavation

Colossal basalt lion found in 1955 Ain Dara crop.jpg
Colossal basalt lion found in 1955

The discovery of the temple was the result of a fortuitous finding of a colossal basalt lion in 1955. Excavations in 1956, 1962, and 1964 were conducted by Maurice Dunand and Feisal Seirafi; beginning in 1976, Ali Abu Assaf continued the work. [13]

History of the tell and temple

The earliest habitation signs on the tell are from the Chalcolithic period during the fourth millennium BC, and the tell remained occupied until the Ottoman period (1517 -1917). [3] [4]

Ali Abu Assaf discovered the temple and inferred that it was built in three structural phases in the period from about 1300 BC to 740 BC. The first phase was from 1300 to 1000 BC, the second phase from 1000 to 900 BC, and third phase from 900 to 740 BC. [3] [4]

Architecture and fittings

General outline

Ain Dara Temple before the Turkish bombing destroyed it in early 2018. AinDara,SE.jpg
Ain Dara Temple before the Turkish bombing destroyed it in early 2018.
Detail of the outer wall of the Ain Dara temple, showing two lions SYRIE 295.jpg
Detail of the outer wall of the Ain Dara temple, showing two lions

The Ain Dara temple, as excavated, has revealed a three-part layout with structural blocks of basalt on limestone foundations. However, it has been conjectured that the temple probably had a mud-brick superstructure covered with wood paneling, which has not survived. [3] [4]

Exterior

A courtyard built with sandstones provides the approach to the temple. The courtyard is paved with flagstones where a chalkstone basin for ceremonial purposes is seen. [4] The temple, 30 by 20 m (98 by 66 ft) in size, faces southeast. [3] [4] Its exterior contains a cherubim relief. [14] The entrance porch, or portico, marked by two basalt piers or pillars, and a wide hall, were not roofed over and were part of an open courtyard. The entrance pillars appear to have architectural and cultic significance. [3] A sphinx and two lions decorate the temple portico flanking the three steps (out of four) made from basalt.

Interior

Reconstructed wall of Ain Dara Temple with cherubim relief in lower panel SYRIE 291.jpg
Reconstructed wall of Ain Dara Temple with cherubim relief in lower panel

The main sections include the porch, a middle room and an inner room or sanctum sanctorum. The middle room is 6 metres (20 ft) by 15.5 metres (51 ft) in area and is lined with lion reliefs, guilloché, and panels resembling windows. The square main hall is 16 metres (52 ft) by 16 metres (52 ft); at the rear end of this hall reliefs and a stele were added. There are basalt reliefs in the lower wall panels. An elevated podium (0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) high platform), a niche, and a secondary wall are part of the visible remains.

In the small shrine area situated at the innermost area of the temple, the wall has carved sockets and grooves, [3] which point to the former presence of a wooden screen. A ramp joins the main room to the platform area and the sanctum. The back wall of the sanctum has a niche which probably housed a statue of a god or goddess. [4] Paved floors and wall reliefs are visible in the multistoried hallways, at least three stories high, that flank three sides of the temple, [3] with at least one southern entrance. Figure-eight lattice patterns are included on two false, recessed windows that were carved into the temple walls. [2]

While all these were dated as part of first- and second-phase creations, the material remains unearthed at the site identify additions made in the third phase of construction, an "ambulatory with a series of side chambers on three sides of the temple". It has also been inferred that these chambers were part of the pre-existing temple platform and not linked to the main temple. [4]

Footprints

SYRIE 294.jpg
SYRIE 293.jpg
Left: The left footprint (ca. 1 metre in length). Right: The right footprint (about 1 metre in length)

A pair of large, bare footprints, each about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in length, are carved into the stone floors of the portico, followed by a single footprint carved beyond the first two, and another single footprint carved into the threshold. "These footprints undoubtedly represent the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, probably Ba'al Hadad, striding into his abode, towards the throne room." [8] [12] [4] This parallels Ezekiel 43:7, where Yahweh explains that the Temple in Jerusalem "is the place of My throne and the place for the soles of My feet". [8] Such an individual would be 20 m (66 ft) in height based on the size of the footprints.

Monson has also noted that the deities in all the Ain Dara temple reliefs have "shoes with curled-up toes". The source of the footprints is debatable. [4]

Similarities with Solomon's Temple

Conceptual sketch of elevation of Solomon's Temple as explained in the Hebrew Bible Solomon'sTempleEast.png
Conceptual sketch of elevation of Solomon's Temple as explained in the Hebrew Bible

After the 1980–1985 excavations, the similarities between the temple at Ain Dara with Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem as described in the Biblical texts, though not seen on the ground, were discussed by archaeologists and historians. Already the smaller 8th-century Tell Tayinat temple, discovered during excavations in 1936 and located about 50 miles (80 km) away, had "caused a sensation because of its similarities to Solomon's Temple." [3] [4]

There are many features in common with Solomon's Temple as described in the Books of Kings. The layout of Dara is similar to that of the Biblical temple, which was also of a long room plan with the three-room configuration of a portico at the entrance followed by the main chamber with the shrine. The difference is in the antechamber, which is an add-on in the Ain Dara temple. The size of the Solomon temple was 35 m (115 ft) by 9 m (30 ft) while that of the Ain Dara is 30 m (98 ft) long by 20 m (66 ft) wide without side chambers. Other similarities include

In brief, 33 of the architectural elements found in Ain Dara are tallied with 65 of the features mentioned in the Biblical description of Solomon's Temple. [4] [15]

Destruction in 2018–2019

Destruction by Turkish military in 2018

In late January 2018, both the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums and pro-rebel Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported major destruction of the temple following airstrikes by the Turkish Air Force in the course of their Afrin offensive. [16] [17] Aerial bombardments of the Ain Dara site were first reported by a local resident via Dutch news network NOS on 23 January 2018. [18]

As reported on MSN news, with the headline "Blown to bits", it is clear the temple was heavily damaged. "For 3,000 years, the lion sculptures of Syria's Ain Dara stood as testaments to the Iron Age. But as Turkish bombardment pounds the region, they have little left but their paws." [19]

As stated by the Directorate of Antiquities in Afrin on 31 January 2018:

"Turkish forces revealed the occupation of Syrian geography in its real face, especially the Turkish state, since the declaration of war on Afrin canton on 20 January 2018, as it escalated Operation Olive Branch to go beyond the targeting of military forces to include shelling villages and towns full of civilians from the elderly, children and women To the rich and varied history and civilization of the province from prehistoric times to the present day."
"On 27 January 2018, the Turkish state warplanes bombarded and damaged the ancient "Ein -Darat" temple, despite its distance from the fighting fronts and the areas of engagement, by about 20 kilometers. Accordingly, the Directorate of Antiquities in Afrin canton and all the bodies and councils associated with Democratic Autonomous Administration and civil institutions condemn this savage shelling of sites and archaeological sites that are the property of all mankind. We call on the international community and all organizations involved in this field to intervene immediately, seriously and Turkish Cultural and Human Heritage in Afrin canton". [20]

The Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums and Syrian Ministry of Culture issued a statement condemning the attack on the site as "aggression of the Turkish regime on archaeological sites in the northern countryside of Aleppo" and called on international organizations to denounce the attack on Ain Dara. [21]

Basalt lion stolen by Turkish-backed group

In early December 2019, Al-Hamzat backed by Turkish forces, took part in Operation Peace Spring, journeying out to eventually plunder the already Turkish-bombed disaster area of 'Ain Dara's archaeological site. It was reported across multiple news outlets including the Syrian information news network of SANA, that this group also carried out illegal excavations in the areas of Afrin and looted facilities near Ras al-Ayn in the Al-Hasakah region of Northeast Syria. [11]

The giant basalt Lion which was stolen in December 2019 by Turkish backed Syrian rebels. Ain Dara Lion (4090391114).jpg
The giant basalt Lion which was stolen in December 2019 by Turkish backed Syrian rebels.

The basalt lion sculpture, which was discovered in 1956, like the Ain Dara temple itself, is now gone:

"On December 20th [2019], the Turkish army and its mercenaries attacked Afrin with tanks, artillery and jets causing massive destruction of the city....Recent footage of a military exercise by a pro-Turkish militia (National Liberation Front) who established a shooting range against the archaeological hill of Ain Dara in the occupied Afrin province invaded and controlled by Turkish forces and their proxy militias last year, revealed the tragic disappearance of the famous historical masterpiece known as The Lion of Afrin. Ain Dara itself was targeted by Turkish jets in 2018 as Turkish units and their proxy forces advanced on the area known for its archaeological wealth that featured one of the world's oldest temples often compared in significance to the Temple of Solomon... The disappearance of the Lion of Afrin marks another war crime against Syrian history and humanity at large." [22]

Warnings gone by as careless and/or deliberate destruction continues

U.N. organizations and human rights groups have heavily warned since February 2019 that Turkish backed rebel forces were carrying out systematic violent and deadly attacks against Kurdish civilians in Afrin. [23] “The commission finds there are reasonable grounds to believe that armed group members in Afrin committed the war crimes of hostage-taking, cruel treatment, torture, and pillage,” the United Nations report said. [24]

The end of Ain Dara and the ancient basalt lion

After months of warnings, on 17 December 2019, the Prensa Latina news source detailed the looting of Ain Dara, reporting:

"...these elements carried out illegal excavations in areas of the town of Afrin, in the north of Aleppo and looted properties and facilities in the village of Tal Mohammed and near that of Ras Al Ayn, in that of Hasaka. Various sources also indicated that in the village of Joga, near the aforementioned Afrin, terrorists of the Al Hamzat organization seized a Basalt Lion at the Archaeological site of Ain Dara"... [25]

There are many tell [archaeological mound] sites in the surrounding area, such as Tall Sulaymānī, which in Arabic means "Tell of Solomon". Furthermore, to the east also is Qamishli, the second largest city in the al-Hasakah Governorate, which was home to a significant Jewish community in ancient times. It was also the modern center of Syriac Christianity, formed after the 1915 Assyrian Genocide, which followed the Armenian and Greek genocides perpetrated against the Syrian Christians during WWI. An estimated 20,000 Christians left the city of Qamishli after the 2011 Syrian War erupted. [26] Qamishli is situated at the base of the Taurus Mountains, located near the area of ancient Hurrian city of Urkesh, which was founded during the 3000 BC era. Excavations have been on hold during the Syrian War since 2011, but unlike Ain Dara, the Urkesh site is protected by Kurdish YPG troops since 2016. Additionally, in the town of Urkesh, the copper Louvre lion and accompanying stone tablet bearing the earliest known text in Hurrian was discovered, dating to the Akkadian period of 2300 – 2159 BC. A second, copper lion found there, is on permanent exhibit in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurrians</span> Historical ethnic group of Southwest Asia

The Hurrians were a people who inhabited the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age. They spoke the Hurrian language, and lived throughout northern Syria, upper Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carchemish</span> Ancient city in Syria

Carchemish, also spelled Karkemish, was an important ancient capital in the northern part of the region of Syria. At times during its history the city was independent, but it was also part of the Mitanni, Hittite and Neo-Assyrian Empires. Today it is on the frontier between Turkey and Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urkesh</span> Ancient City state (2700 BC - ?)

Urkesh, also transliterated Urkish, is a tell, or settlement mound, located in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains in Al-Hasakah Governorate, northeastern Syria. It was founded during the fourth millennium BC, possibly by the Hurrians, on a site which appears to have been inhabited previously for a few centuries. The city god of Urkesh was Kumarbi, father of Teshup.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tell Tayinat</span> Archaeological site on the Orontes river in Hatay Province, Turkey

Tell Ta'yinat is a low-lying ancient tell on the east bank at the bend of the Orontes River where it flows through the Amuq valley, in the Hatay province of southeastern Turkey about 25 kilometers south east of Antakya, and lies near Tell Atchana, the site of the ancient city of Alalakh. Tell Ta'yinat has been proposed as the site of Alalaḫu, inhabited in late 3rd millennium BC, mentioned in Ebla's Palace G archive; and in later times as Kinalua, the capital city of an Iron Age Neo-Hittite kingdom. Among the findings are an Iron Age temple and several 1st millennium BC cuneiform tablets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Samʾal</span> Archaeological site in Turkey

Sam'al, is an archaeological site located in the Anti-Taurus Mountains of modern Turkey's Gaziantep Province. During its time under the control of the Neo-Assyrian Empire it was called, by them, Sam'al. It was founded at least as far back as the Early Bronze Age and thrived between 3000 and 2000 BC, and on the highest part of the upper mound was found a walled citadel of the Middle Bronze Age. New excavations revealed a monumental complex in the Middle Bronze Age II, and another structure that was destroyed in the mid to late 17th century BC, maybe by Hititte king Hattusili I. This event was recently radiocarbon-dated to sometime between 1632 and 1610 BC, during the late Middle Bronze Age II. The site was thought to have been abandoned during the Hittite and Mitanni periods, but excavations in 2021 season showed evidence of occupation during the Late Bronze Age in Hittite times. It flourished again in the Iron Age, initially under Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittites, and by 920 B.C. had become a kingdom. In the 9th and 8th century BC it came under control of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and by the 7th century BC had become a directly ruled Assyrian province.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tell Brak</span> Archaeological site in Syria

Tell Brak was an ancient city in Syria; its remains constitute a tell located in the Upper Khabur region, near the modern village of Tell Brak, 50 kilometers north-east of Al-Hasaka city, Al-Hasakah Governorate. The city's original name is unknown. During the second half of the third millennium BC, the city was known as Nagar and later on, Nawar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arslan Tash</span> Archaeological site in northern Syria

Arslan Tash, ancient Hadātu, is an archaeological site in Aleppo Governorate in northern Syria, around 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of Carchemish and the Euphrates and nearby the town of Kobanî.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afrin, Syria</span> City in Syria

Afrin is a city in northern Syria. In the Afrin District, it is part of the Aleppo Governorate. The total population of the district as of 2005 was recorded at 172,095 people, of whom 36,562 lived in the town of Afrin itself.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">British Museum Department of the Middle East</span>

The Department of the Middle East, numbering some 330,000 works, forms a significant part of the collections of the British Museum, and the world's largest collection of Mesopotamian antiquities outside Iraq. The collections represent the civilisations of the ancient Near East and its adjacent areas.

Tell Arbid is an ancient Near East archaeological site in the Khabur River Basin region of Al-Hasakah Governorate, Syria, about 50 kilometers north northeast of modern Al-Hasakah. It is located 45 kilometers south of Tell Mozan, the site of ancient Urkesh and about 15 kilometers from the site of Chagar Bazar. The Halafian site of Tell Arbid Abyad is a short distance away.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Museum of Aleppo</span>

The National Museum of Aleppo is the largest museum in the city of Aleppo, Syria, and was founded in 1931. It is located in the heart of the northern city on Baron Street, adjacent to the famous Baron Hotel and near the Bab al-Faraj Square and Clock Tower. The majority of the museum's exhibitions are devoted to the archaeology of Syria, with most of the finds coming from archaeological sites of the northern part of the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solomon's Temple</span> Temple in Jerusalem in Abrahamic religions

Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple, was a biblical Temple in Jerusalem believed to have existed between the 10th and 6th centuries BCE. Its description is largely based on narratives in the Hebrew Bible, in which it was commissioned by biblical king Solomon before being destroyed during the Siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 587 BCE. Although no remains of the temple have ever been found, most modern scholars agree that the First Temple existed on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem by the time of the Babylonian siege, though there is significant debate over the date of its construction and the identity of its builder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arslan Tash reliefs</span>

The Arslan Tash reliefs are bas-reliefs of human figures and animals which adorned the city gates and temple portals of ancient Hadatu; the modern archeological site of Arslan Tash, literally "the Stone Lion".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amrit</span> Archaeological site in Tartus District, Syria

Amrit, the classical Marathus, was a Phoenician port located near present-day Tartus in Syria. Founded in the third millennium BC, Marat was the northernmost important city of ancient Phoenicia, with relations to nearby Arwad. During the 2nd century BC, Amrit was defeated and its site largely abandoned, leaving its ruins well preserved and without extensive remodeling by later generations.

Ain Dara is a Yezidi village in northern Syria, administratively part of the Afrin District of the Aleppo Governorate, located northwest of Aleppo. Nearby localities include Afrin to the north, Karzahayel to the east and Bassouta to the south. According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Ain Dara had a population of 248 in the 2004 census. According to newer data in 2013-2014 conducted by MCK, Ayn Dara had a population of 601.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karatepe-Aslantaş Open-Air Museum</span> Open-air museum in Osmaniye Province, Turkey

Karatepe-Aslantaş Open-Air Museum is an open-air museum in Osmaniye Province, Turkey. Karatepe is the location while Aslantaş refers to the lion figure on stone sculptures. The site is situated inside a national park with the same name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yesemek Quarry and Sculpture Workshop</span>

Yesemek Quarry and Sculpture Workshop is an open-air museum and archaeological site in Gaziantep Province, Turkey. The site was a quarry in Hittite times and occupies a 100000 m2 area, making it the largest known stonemasonry workshop from the ancient Near East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple in antis</span> Historical architectural design

The temple in antis is an architectural design for temples in Syria and other parts of the Levant starting in the Early Bronze Age and persisting until the Iron Age. The design has a porch formed by extensions, or antae, of the side walls at each side.

Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati is an American archaeologist, who focused her research on the Caucasus and ancient Syria in the third and second millennium B.C..

References

  1. ↑ King, Philip J.; Stager, Lawrence E. (2001). Life in Biblical Israel . Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press. p.  334.
  2. 1 2 Long, Jesse (January 2002). 1 & 2 Kings. College Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN   978-0-89900-882-0.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Monson, John M. (June 1999). "The Temple of Solomon: Heart of Jerusalem". In Hess, Richard S.; Wenham, Gordon J. (eds.). Zion, city of our God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 12–19. ISBN   978-0-8028-4426-2.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Monson, John M. "The New 'Ain Dara Temple: Closest Solomonic Parallel" (PDF). michaelsheiser.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
  5. ↑ Hicks, John Mark (March 2001). 1 & 2 Chronicles. College Press. p. 272. ISBN   978-0-89900-883-7.
  6. ↑ Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.; Beck, Astrid B. (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 1265. ISBN   978-0-8028-2400-4.
  7. ↑ Lemaire, Andra(c); Adams, Dr Samuel; Baruch Halpern (2009). Book of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception. BRILL. p. 297. ISBN   978-90-04-17729-1.
  8. 1 2 3 Walton, John H.; Baker, David W.; Bodi, Daniel; Paul W. Ferris (2009). Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel. Zondervan. p. 494. ISBN   978-0-310-25576-5.
  9. ↑ "Syrian government says Turkish shelling damaged ancient temple". Reuters . Archived from the original on 9 July 2023.
  10. ↑ Turkish bombing damages 3,000-year-old temple in northern Syria
  11. 1 2 al-Sabbagh, Hazem (16 December 2019). "American newspaper: Militants affiliated with Turkey stole basalt lion statue from Ain Dara archeological site". Syrian Arab News Agency. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  12. 1 2 Stone, Elizabeth Caecilia; Zimansky, Paul E. (1999). The Iron age settlement at ʻAin Dara, Syria: survey and surroundings. J. and E. Hedges. p. 1. ISBN   978-1-84171-103-4.
  13. ↑ Lehmann, Gunnar (February 2002). "Reviewed work(s): The Iron Age Settlement at ʿAin Dara, Syria: Survey and Soundings by Elizabeth C. Stone; Paul E. Zimansky". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (325). The American Schools of Oriental Research: 83. doi:10.2307/1357717. JSTOR   1357717.
  14. ↑ Block, Daniel I. (October 2008). Israel: Ancient Kingdom Or Late Invention?. B&H Publishing Group. p. 46. ISBN   978-0-8054-4679-1.
  15. ↑ "Searching for the Temple of King Solomon". Biblical Archaeology Society. 10 October 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
  16. ↑ "Syrian government says Turkish shelling damaged ancient temple". reuters.com. Reuters. 28 January 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  17. ↑ "Syria condemns Turkey's attacks on ancient sites in Afrin". xinhuanet.com. Xinhua. 28 January 2018. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  18. ↑ "Burgers in Afrin over Turkse bombardementen: niemand kijkt naar ons om". nos.nl (in Dutch). NOS. 23 January 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  19. ↑ "Syrian government says Turkish shelling damaged ancient temple". msn.com. MSN. 31 January 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
  20. ↑ "Directorate of Antiquities- Turkish Occupation Army targets Archaeological Sites". 31 January 2018. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  21. ↑ "Turkish forces destroy parts of the ancient Ain Dara temple in Afrin (PHOTOS, VIDEO)". Voice of People Today. 28 January 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  22. ↑ "Lion of Afrin: Victim of Archaeological Mafias and War Criminals". InsideOver. 12 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  23. ↑ "Rights Groups: Abuses on the Rise in Syria's Afrin – Syrian Arab Republic". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  24. ↑ "Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (A/HRC/40/70) [EN/AR] – Syrian Arab Republic". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  25. ↑ "Denuncian saqueo de sitios arqueológicos en Siria". prensa-latina.cu (in European Spanish). Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  26. ↑ Hermann, Rainer; Qamischli. "Syrien: Die letzten Christen von Qamischli". faz.net (in German). ISSN   0174-4909 . Retrieved 23 December 2019.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.